Drinking water quality in the Malaysian indigenous community of Pos Kemar (Perak): Pollution, risks, and household practices

Abstract

Access to clean water continues to be a major obstacle for indigenous communities in remote areas. The objective of this study is to evaluate the extent of pollution in the drinking water of the indigenous tribe community of Pos Kemar (Malaysia), specifically examining the issue of microbiological contamination and the resulting health hazards. Drinking water samples were collected from 108 households and analysed for physicochemical parameters, heavy metals, and microbial contamination, particularly Escherichia coli (E. coli). In addition, a questionnaire study was carried out to investigate behaviour related to water handling, hygiene, and reported health complaints. The results indicated that although the majority of physicochemical and heavy metal levels were within the Malaysian Drinking Water Quality Standards, the presence of microbiological contamination, namely E. coli, greatly beyond the safely acceptable thresholds in all samples. According to a simplified Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment, all samples exceeded the World Health Organization health-based target for pathogenic E. coli, indicating a significant health risk from E. coli infection. The study further revealed that effective water treatment, such as boiling, substantially decreased levels of pollution. Nevertheless, deficiencies in water management protocols and sanitation were identified, which greatly contributed to the high occurrence of waterborne illnesses. Specifically, 31 % of the population reported experiencing health symptoms related to inadequate water quality, such as diarrhea and skin infections. The results emphasize the immediate requirement for enhanced water treatment measures and public health approaches to reduce the hazards of waterborne illnesses in indigenous populations.