Understanding antimicrobial resistance (AMR) mechanisms and advancements in AMR diagnostics

Abstract

The overuse and abuse of antibiotics, which results in the evolution of resistant microorganisms, is the primary cause of the global health catastrophe known as antimicrobial resistance (AMR). The enzymatic breakdown of antibiotics, target site modification, efflux pump overexpression, and the formation of biofilm are some of the mechanisms responsible for acquiring antimicrobial resistance (AMR). These mechanisms enable bacteria to evade or neutralize the effects of antimicrobial agents, complicating treatment options and increasing mortality rates. The rapid dissemination of resistance genes via horizontal gene transfer further exacerbates the problem, necessitating urgent intervention. Advanced AMR diagnostics are transforming the fight against antimicrobial resistance. Biosensors enable rapid, point-of-care detection; Cluster regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR) technologies offer precise identification of resistance genes; and mass spectrometry provides fast, accurate profiling. Automated systems streamline workflows and boost throughput, while flow cytometry delivers real-time, single-cell analysis of phenotypic resistance. Together, these innovations accelerate detection and support targeted antimicrobial stewardship, essential for combating the global AMR threat. This review covers the mechanisms underlying antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and recent advancements in AMR diagnostic technologies.