The soleus muscle in comparative anatomy: Morphological variation and functional adaptation across mammals, with clinical insights

Abstract

Introduction

The soleus muscle, a deep postural component of the triceps surae complex, plays a fundamental role in human bipedal locomotion and venous return. Despite its clinical and functional importance, it remains underrepresented in comparative anatomical literature. Morphological and functional variations across species reveal crucial insights into its evolutionary and biomedical relevance.

Aim

This review aims to synthesize current knowledge on the interspecies morphological variability of the soleus muscle, emphasizing its developmental origins, adaptive transformations, clinical significance, and translational potential.

Methods

A comprehensive literature review was conducted, integrating findings from anatomical dissections, histological analyses, embryological studies, imaging data, and evolutionary biology. Representative mammalian species were compared, including humans, primates, cursorial quadrupeds, and arboreal mammals.

Results

The soleus exhibits extensive variation in morphology, fiber-type composition, and functional integration across taxa. In humans, it is hypertrophied and slow-twitch dominant, supporting upright posture and endurance gait. In contrast, the muscle is reduced or absent in cursorial species such as horses. In arboreal mammals, it retains postural function despite its small size. These differences are shaped by embryonic development, phylogenetic lineage, and biomechanical demands.

Conclusion

The soleus muscle is an evolutionarily labile but biomechanically essential structure. Its comparative anatomy provides a unique model for understanding musculoskeletal adaptation, pathology, surgical application, and bioinspired design. Future research should integrate comparative, clinical, and technological approaches to fully exploit its potential.