Stereotype threat effects on motor performance and learning: A systematic review of 30 years

Abstract

Stereotype threat can impair performance in individuals who fear confirming a negative stereotype about their group. This study systematically analyzed its effects on motor performance and learning observed in the last 30 years. Searches in Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, and PsycInfo, conducted in March 2025, identified 808 studies published between 1995 and March 2025, of which 65 met the inclusion criteria, covering 79 experiments and 5734 participants. Most experiments focused on motor performance (n = 65) rather than learning (n = 14). Gender stereotypes were the most studied (n = 45), followed by age (n = 13), race (n = 7), weight (n = 3), sports status (n = 2), nonexerciser (n = 2), disability (n = 1), height (n = 1), and socioeconomic status (n = 1). Some studies examined combined stereotypes (e.g., gender and race, n = 2). Adults were the most studied population, followed by children, elderly individuals, and adolescents. Explicit manipulation was the most used, followed by combined explicit-implicit and solely implicit approaches. Few studies assessed underlying mechanisms, as perceived competence, self-efficacy, and nervousness. Most findings indicate that stereotype threat negatively affects motor performance and learning across different populations and manipulation types. The limited research on motor learning, different stereotype types, and diverse populations highlights the need for further studies to clarify the mechanisms of stereotype threat and its effects on motor skill acquisition. Finally, we recommend research focused on developing strategies to mitigate the detrimental impact of stereotype threat on motor performance and learning.