Inhalation health risk assessment in the port of Volos, Greece, based on multiannual evolution of PM10-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and metals/metalloids: Implications for EU-regulated PM10 pollutants

Abstract

Port cities are often burdened by elevated air pollution levels due to ship emissions and harbour-related activities such as cargo handling and internal traffic. This study investigates the concentrations of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) and selected metals/metalloids (Pb, As, Cd, Ni, V, Co, Cu, Cr, Zn, Mn, Fe) bound to the inhalable particulate matter (PM₁₀) in the port of Volos (central Greece), the fourth largest in the country. Data were collected over a five-year period (2018–2022), allowing for the assessment of interannual variability. A risk assessment was conducted using standard U.S. EPA methodologies to estimate both carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks through inhalation exposure, separately for adults and children. The results revealed that the cumulative non-cancer risk from EU-regulated PM₁₀-bound metal(loid)s (As, Ni, Cd, Pb) remained well below the threshold of 1 × 10⁻⁶, indicating acceptable exposure levels. However, benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) contributed significantly to the non-cancer risk—30 % for children and 20 % for adults. The inhalation lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) for the metal(loid)s exceeded the U.S. EPA's safety threshold (1 × 10⁻⁶), reaching 5.1 × 10⁻⁵ for children and 5.7 × 10⁻⁵ for adults, with lead (Pb) being the predominant contributor. In contrast, the ILCR of Σ₁₂PAHs was nearly two orders of magnitude lower. These findings emphasize the necessity of long-term pollutant monitoring in port areas to inform evidence-based public health interventions and regulatory action.