3D-Printed Conductance-Based Force Sensors Using Single Traxels

Abstract

This letter investigates the use of 3-D printing for fabricating conductance-based force sensors with cell-based geometries. Three mathematically defined structures, i.e., sine wave, circle, and Reuleaux triangle, were implemented using single traxels (3D-printed conductive tracks) to maximize contact area and enabling consistent fabrication. The sensors were produced via fused deposition modeling and programmed using FullControl G-code, enabling direct translation of mathematical functions into print paths. The sine wave design achieved the highest sensitivity (0.035 N$^{-1}$) and 95% linearity, consistent with constriction resistance theory. All designs demonstrated reliable performance with minimal process-induced variation. These findings highlight the potential of traxel-based 3-D printing as a cost-effective and customizable approach for producing force sensors suited for applications in human–machine interfacing and soft robotics.