Sex differences in brain-behavior relationships in the first 2 years of life.

Abstract

Evidence for sex differences in cognition in childhood is established, but less is known about the underlying neural mechanisms for these differences. Recent findings suggest the existence of brain-behavior relationship heterogeneities during infancy; however, it remains unclear whether sex underlies these heterogeneities during this critical period when sex-related behavioral differences arise. A sample of 316 infants was included with resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging scans at neonate (3 weeks), 1 year and 2 years of age. We used multiple linear regression to test interactions between sex and resting-state functional connectivity on behavioral scores of working memory, inhibitory self-control, intelligence, and anxiety collected at 4 years of age. We found 6 age-specific, intra-hemispheric connections showing significant and robust sex differences in functional connectivity-behavior relationships. All connections are either with the prefrontal cortex or in regions with direct anatomical pathways to the prefrontal cortex. These sex differences in functional connectivity only emerge when associated with behavior and not in functional connectivity independently. Taken together, we capture robust and conserved brain mechanisms that are distinct to sex and are defined by their relationship to behavioral outcomes. Our results establish brain-behavior mechanisms as an important feature in the search for sex differences during development.