Evolving smart homes to exploring space, dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC) as a sustainable energy model for the future world—A review

Abstract

Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) have emerged as a promising third-generation photovoltaic technology offering a cost-effective, flexible, and sustainable alternative to conventional silicon-based solar cells. In this review, we provide a comprehensive analysis of DSSC applications by classifying them into indoor and outdoor categories. The objective is to evaluate how DSSCs transition from traditional low power uses to advanced, integrated applications. The review is structured around real-world implementation contexts, including indoor Internet of Things systems, wearable electronics, biosensors, building-integrated photovoltaics, agrivoltaics, underwater systems, and extraterrestrial settings. It further examines recent developments in hybrid DSSC-supercapacitor systems for addressing intermittency, and how artificial intelligence and machine learning are accelerating DSSC design and optimization. Unlike existing reviews, this work presents a forward-looking, system-level perspective by connecting terrestrial energy needs with off-planet energy strategies. Key insights suggest that DSSCs, owing to their adaptability to low and diffused light, mechanical flexibility, and semitransparency, are uniquely positioned for decentralized and smart energy architectures. By critically analyzing real-world feasibility, evaluating trade-offs, and proposing future research directions, this review aims to bridge current knowledge gaps and accelerate the practical adoption.