Advanced electrochemical detection of clindamycin from aqueous solutions using Zinc Aluminium layered double hydroxide: Green chemistry approaches and cytotoxicity evaluation

Abstract

The widespread presence of antibiotics like clindamycin (CLN) in aquatic environments poses serious ecological and health risks. This study introduces a simple and cost-effective electrochemical sensor based on Zn-Al layered double hydroxide (LDH) nanoparticles, synthesized via coprecipitation, for CLN detection in environmental samples. Characterization by FTIR, SEM, TEM, BET, and TGA confirmed a porous, nano-flake structure conducive to enhanced electrocatalytic activity. The sensor exhibited excellent performance with a detection limit of 0.044 µM (0.0187 µg/mL), a quantification limit of 0.15 µM (0.0638 µg/mL), and a linear range of 4–700 µM, outperforming traditional HPLC methods. Optimal detection was achieved at pH 3.6, with good selectivity, stability, and reproducibility. Application to tap water, Nile river water, groundwater, and wastewater samples confirmed its practical utility. The method's environmental impact was evaluated using green chemistry metrics including AGREEprep, ESA, and AMVI demonstrating its eco-friendliness. Cytotoxicity testing on WI-38 cells showed concentration-dependent effects, supporting its safe use in environmental and biomedical contexts. The total cost of the material was estimated at 8.14 USD/g, confirming its affordability for large-scale applications.