Microgels: from synthesis to tissue regeneration applications.

Abstract

Microgels have emerged as a versatile platform in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, offering unique physicochemical properties, modularity, and the ability to mimic native extracellular matrix microenvironments. Derived from natural or synthetic hydrogels, microgels exhibit biocompatibility, controllability, and injectability, which make them suitable for diverse tissue engineering applications. This review systematically explores the fabrication methods of microgels and highlights their role in cell encapsulation, therapeutic delivery, and structural tissue development. Advanced strategies in microgel manufacturing, such as injectable hydrogels, assembled microgel platforms, and in-gel assemblies, have enabled the creation of highly customizable and functional tissue constructs. Additionally, three-dimensional bioprinting of microgels provides a high-throughput strategy to generate patient-specific scaffolds with precise spatial organization and enhanced cellular viability. It is expected that more efficient and cost-effective strategies for mass production and customization of microgel systems to specific cell types or patient needs are essential for future studies. The innovations, including stimuli-responsive and four-dimensional microgels, will expand their potential by enabling dynamicin situtunable microenvironments. These advancements will enable optimal design, scalability, and integration into therapeutic applications, thereby accelerating the clinical translation of microgel-based therapies and driving the development of multifunctional tissue products.