Mechanisms and rescue measures of female ovarian dysfunction induced by environmental endocrine chemicals: A review

Abstract

Environmental endocrine chemicals (EDCs) constitute a class of exogenous chemicals with the capacity to imitate or impede the processes of synthesis, secretion, transport, conjugation, reaction, and metabolism of natural hormones in living organisms. They elicit a broad spectrum of physiological effects, which may either mirror those of natural hormones or exhibit anti-natural characteristics. Prolonged exposure to EDCs has been demonstrated to exert significant effects on animal reproduction and development. It is noteworthy that the female reproductive system is more susceptible to the effects of EDCs than the male reproductive system. EDCs have the potential to cause significant damage to the structure and function of the female reproductive organs, and have been linked to an increased incidence of various tumors in the female reproductive system, including ovarian cancer. A growing body of evidence suggests that exposure to EDCs affects reproduction in five main ways: competitively binding to cell membrane-specific receptors, disruption of cellular signaling within germ cells, intracellular imbalance between reactive oxygen species and antioxidants, alteration of epigenetic modifications, and control of early apoptosis. Nevertheless, the same in vivo and in vitro studies have indicated that the reproductive toxicity produced by EDCs can also be attenuated in a multitude of ways, such as by antioxidants, hormones, and compensatory mechanisms of signal transduction. Through comprehensive analysis of epidemiological studies, laboratory experiments, and clinical observations, this review details the mechanisms of the effects of EDCs leading to ovarian dysfunction and proposes a series of strategies to prevent EDCs exposure.