The Economics of Household Water Access: A Review and Research Roadmap for “Water for All”

Abstract

Ensuring universal access to clean water remains one of the most pressing global challenges, particularly in low-income countries. Despite considerable efforts under the United Nations Millennium Development Goal and Sustainable Development Goals, progress has been uneven, with persistent gaps in infrastructure financing and service delivery. In this review, we critically assess current measurements of water access, which fail to capture the true state of access. Standard metrics often emphasize the presence of infrastructure. We propose using dynamic measurement frameworks that go beyond infrastructure presence and include indicators for reliability, temporal variability, quality, affordability, and gender-based disparities. We also examine the potential and limitations of emerging technologies in measuring water access. To complement improved measurement, we review evaluation practices of water interventions, which are dominated by experimental methods. While these methods are useful for identifying causal impacts, they often overlook key factors such as long-term functionality, maintenance challenges, user and community engagement, and local institutional capacity that determine the effectiveness and sustainability of water access solutions. We argue for combining quantitative impact evaluation methods with qualitative evaluation methods to address these gaps and better understand how water interventions interact with complex socioeconomic, environmental, and behavioral factors.