Trichothecenes toxicity in humans and animals: Unraveling the mechanisms and harnessing phytochemicals for prevention

Abstract

Mycotoxins are the major widespread hazardous substances in feed and food and are widely distributed throughout the world. Mycotoxins are a major food safety concern since they can produce substantial toxic and carcinogenic consequences in human and animals when consumed. Trichothecenes (TCTs), a class of highly toxic mycotoxins mainly generated by Fusarium species, are among the most prevalent food pollutants. Deoxynivalenol (DON), largely biosynthesized by Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium culmorum, along with T-2 toxin generated chiefly by Fusarium langsethiae and Fusarium sporotrichioides, represent the most agriculturally significant TCT subtypes. There are still no effective control strategies. Furthermore, phytochemicals have received widespread attention as natural compounds with strong antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and detoxifying effects. Because of the powerful antioxidant effects of phytochemicals, researchers have begun to look at ways to counteract the intense toxicity of TCT. Focusing on the global challenge of TCTs, this comprehensive review systematically examines contamination patterns of DON and T-2 toxin, elucidates their multi-organ toxicity pathways, and critically evaluates emerging evidence on phytochemical-based interventions targeting DON and T-2 toxin-induced health impairments. It concludes that These findings demonstrate that phytochemicals counteract DON and T-2 toxin toxicity by suppressing oxidative stress-mediated pathways, including pyroptosis, ferroptosis, apoptosis, and inflammatory responses. Accordingly, the direct addition of phytochemicals to food and feed is expected to be a promising prospect for the detoxification of DON and T-2 toxin, considering their safety, efficiency, and accessibility.