Managing Indonesian coral reefs: Integration of stressors in Marine Protected Area (MPA) management plans

Abstract

Indonesia is recognized as a biodiversity hotspot within the Coral Triangle and is rapidly expanding its network of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). MPAs are critical tools for conserving coral reefs, and MPA management plans serve as the foundational guidelines for conservation. Their effectiveness depends partly on how adequately coral reefs' stressors are addressed and integrated into actionable mitigation strategies. This study assessed the inclusion of stressors in current government-issued Indonesian MPA management plans. We analyzed the inclusion of stressor words within the comprehensive management plans and reviewed the action plan. By 2022, only 20 % of Indonesian MPAs had comprehensive management plans, comprising an introduction, zoning plan, and action plan. We found that most plans address stressors related to fishing. In contrast, less than one-third of the plans address land-based stressors, with nutrient pollution and plastic waste largely overlooked. While climate change was identified in about half of the plans, specific climate change impacts, such as rising sea surface temperature, were identified in only very few plans. Most management plans were broad, non-specific, and highly similar across locations, with stressors identified in the introduction rarely integrated into zoning and action plan sections, which may limit site-specific conservation efforts. Nevertheless, some plans showed a more targeted approach by addressing local stressors and proposing actionable responses. This study highlights the need for more site-specific and adaptive MPA plans. It offers a checklist to assess stressors in future Indonesian MPA management plan development, guiding increased responsiveness to evolving environmental challenges.