Seismic performances of Italian schools: A comprehensive overview of risk assessment, retrofitting, and preparedness strategies

Abstract

Schools in Italy play a critical societal role, both as centers of education and as vital community shelters during seismic events. Yet many Italian school buildings predate modern seismic codes and thus remain vulnerable to frequent earthquakes. This review consolidates current knowledge on the seismic performance of these structures, encompassing both historical masonry buildings and reinforced concrete frames designed primarily for gravity loads. It examines observed damage patterns in structural and non-structural components and highlights the urgency for comprehensive retrofit strategies. From traditional strengthening measures—such as fiber-reinforced polymers and steel bracings—to more advanced techniques like base isolation and supplemental damping, diverse solutions are presented alongside illustrative case studies that showcase outcomes and best practices. Recognizing that technical feasibility is only one dimension of risk mitigation, the review also explores multi-criteria decision-making frameworks that integrate economic, social, and environmental considerations for prioritizing intervention measures across large building portfolios. In addition, it underscores the importance of proactive school-based risk awareness programs and early warning systems to enhance occupant safety and ensure continuity of educational activities. Through the synthesis of existing literature and real-world applications, this paper identifies critical knowledge gaps—particularly the need for better large-scale data integration and refined performance-based methods tailored to school contexts. Overall, it provides policymakers, engineers, and educators with evidence-based guidance to bolster resilience in Italian schools, with implications that extend to similarly vulnerable regions worldwide.