Lithium-Ion Battery Critical Materials Sustainability

Abstract

Lithium mining, primarily concentrated in Australia, Chile, and China, poses significant environmental risks, including ecosystem degradation, water depletion, and pollution, with each tonne of extracted lithium generating approximately 15 tonnes of CO₂ emissions. Australia maintains its position as the world’s largest lithium producer, with output reaching 86,000 t in 2023, representing approximately 52% of global production, primarily sourced from hard-rock mines extracting spodumene in Western Australia. Direct lithium extraction (DLE) (6) technologies have demonstrated promising results; however, their real-world effectiveness and environmental impact remain uncertain as only 30% of tests have been conducted on actual brine sources. Balancing decarbonization goals with mining impacts requires stringent regulation and accelerated innovation in sustainable methods. Cobalt mining in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), (7) which supplies about 70% of the global market, is plagued by widespread human rights abuses, including the exploitation of thousands of child laborers and hazardous working conditions in artisanal mines. Exploitation endangers the well-being of vulnerable populations and raises ethical concerns about the sourcing of critical battery materials, emphasizing the urgent need for sustainable and responsible practices within the LIB industry. The cobalt mining crisis in the DRC underscores the urgent need for robust, multistakeholder approaches to responsible sourcing, as recent reports reveal forced evictions, human rights abuses, and environmental degradation linked to industrial-scale mine expansions. Nickel mining in Indonesia and the Philippines, responsible for over 60% of global nickel production, is causing severe environmental devastation, including deforestation impacting thousands of hectares and heavy metal water contamination threatens local biodiversity and the rights of Indigenous communities, raising significant sustainability concerns in the LIB supply chain. Both countries face issues of water pollution, habitat destruction, and violations of Indigenous land rights, highlighting the urgent need for stricter regulations and sustainable mining practices to balance the growing demand for electric vehicle batteries with environmental and social responsibilities. South Africa, the world’s leading manganese producer, maintained its dominance in 2023 with an output of 7.2 million metric tons (36% of global production). Manganese extraction faces significant challenges, including the depletion of high-grade deposits, technological limitations in deep-sea mining, potential ecological disruptions to marine ecosystems, and economic feasibility issues, particularly as North America lack domestic supply. These challenges, combined with global shifts toward alternative battery technologies and ethical sourcing concerns, underscore the urgent need for South Africa to diversify its manganese industry, invest in local processing capabilities, and address infrastructure and environmental issues to maintain its market leadership. Copper extraction, vital for LIBs, faces significant challenges, particularly in Chile, the world’s largest copper producer. Declining ore grades necessitate more intensive mining, leading to increased environmental hazards like acid mine drainage and tailings dam failures, which contaminate water resources and harm ecosystems. High water consumption in Chile’s arid regions exacerbates water stress, while air pollution from dust and emissions poses risks to public health, emphasizing the critical need for sustainable copper mining practices to support battery production responsibly. This multifaceted challenge underscores the urgent need for innovative, sustainable practices to balance copper demand for the green energy transition with environmental protection and community health. Graphite extraction faces significant challenges, including environmental concerns related to mining operations, economic feasibility issues stemming from price fluctuations, and supply vulnerabilities due to China’s dominance in global production. China dominates the global graphite market as the world’s largest producer, with an output of 1.23 million metric tons in 2023 (77% of global supply). Surprising shifting demand in the EV sector, presents a critical challenge for the sustainable scaling of LIB production, requiring urgent innovations in extraction methods and supply chain diversification. Aluminum extraction faces significant challenges, including environmental degradation from bauxite mining, high energy consumption during refining that contributes to substantial carbon emissions, and the generation of toxic red mud, raising sustainability concerns as global demand continues to rise. China maintains its position as the world’s dominant aluminum producer, with output reaching a record 41.59 million metric tons in 2023, representing approximately 59% of global production. This underscores the urgent need for innovative recycling methods, which use only 5% of the energy required for primary production, and stricter regulations to mitigate the industry’s substantial ecological footprint. Figure 1. A schematic illustrates the challenges, opportunities, and recommendations for the sustainability of critical materials in LIBs. Innovative recycling technologies like BRAWS and flash Joule heating (FJH) (8) are revolutionizing LIBs recycling, promoting a circular economy with minimal environmental impact. The FJH method rapidly heats battery waste to 2,500 K within seconds, creating unique magnetic properties that facilitate efficient separation and purification of valuable materials. This groundbreaking process achieves a remarkable 98% battery metal recovery yield while preserving the structure and functionality of materials, allowing for their direct reconstitution into new cathodes without harsh chemicals. With global demand for LIBs projected to exceed 2,600 GWh by 2030 and an estimated 54 million metric tons of spent LIBs by 2050, these innovative recycling approaches could play a crucial role in sustainable battery management and resource conservation. While promising, these innovations must overcome challenges in large-scale implementation and integration with existing recycling infrastructure to truly revolutionize the circular economy for LIBs. An innovative approach to upcycling spent lithium cobalt oxide (LCO) (9) cathodes from discarded LIBs as solid lubricant additives, significantly reducing friction coefficients by up to 70% and wear rates by up to 85% when added to base oil at concentrations of 0.1–1 wt %. This method not only addresses the growing challenge of battery waste management but also provides a value-added application for spent cathode materials, potentially reducing the demand for virgin materials in lubricant production. By transforming battery waste into a performance-enhancing additive, this approach aligns with circular economy principles, offering both environmental and economic benefits in battery lifecycle management. Further research is needed to assess the method’s adaptability to different cathode chemistries, potential environmental impacts of lubricant disposal, and its economic feasibility in large-scale applications to fully realize its potential in promoting a circular battery economy. The galvanic corrosion technology (10) offers a groundbreaking approach to reviving spent NCM cathodes, restoring them to full capacity at ambient conditions without high-temperature treatment or harmful chemicals. This innovative method, involving spontaneous corrosion of aluminum, electron transfer, and lithium-ion insertion, successfully restored a spent Li_0.76Ni_0.6Co_0.2Mn_0.2O₂ cathode to its original state, achieving a capacity equivalent to new materials. With global demand for LIBs projected, this energy-efficient and environmentally friendly recycling method could play a crucial role in sustainable battery management and resource conservation, offering a cost-effective alternative to mining for critical metals. Furthermore, the method’s effectiveness across various cathode chemistries and its integration with existing recycling infrastructure require further investigation to fully assess its potential impact on sustainable battery management and resource conservation. Direct recycling (11) has emerged as a groundbreaking approach for LIB recycling, offering substantial environmental and economic advantages by reducing energy consumption by up to 70% and carbon emissions by 30% compared to traditional hydrometallurgical methods. For lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries, this technique increases profits by 58% and reduces emissions by 18%, while potentially extending battery lifespan by 5–8 years through reuse before recycling. The comprehensive cradle-to-grave analysis considers diverse second-life applications and evaluates various recycling technologies, providing a holistic understanding of LIBs’ economic and environmental implications. With global LIB demand, these advanced recycling and lifecycle analysis methods are crucial for creating a more sustainable and circular battery economy. Additionally, the economic viability of direct recycling may fluctuate with raw material prices and evolving battery technologies, necessitating ongoing adaptation of recycling strategies to maintain its advantages over primary production. A groundbreaking study presents a significant opportunity for sustainable LIB materials through the development of a cobalt-free cathode system. (12) The research describes a LIB pairing a cobalt-free cathode (LiNi_0.5Mn_1.5O₄) with a silicon suboxide (SiO_x) anode, offering remarkable sustainability advantages. (12) This innovative battery system demonstrates high performance by sustaining an unprecedented 1,000 cycles with a high cutoff voltage of 4.9 V, while also achieving a theoretical energy density of ∼610 Wh kg^–1. By eliminating cobalt, which is associated with supply chain risks and human rights concerns, and utilizing more abundant materials, this technology addresses critical sustainability issues in battery production, paving the way for more environmentally friendly and ethically sourced battery technologies. The long-term stability, cost-effectiveness, and integration with existing manufacturing processes of this new system require further investigation to fully assess its potential to revolutionize the LIB industry and support the growing demand for electric vehicles. The Global Battery Alliance’s Battery Passport initiative, launched in January 2023, provides comprehensive digital information about a battery’s lifecycle, including material composition, origin, sustainability, carbon footprint, and recycling details. In December 2024, Solaris demonstrated the initiative’s practical implementation by delivering the world’s first electric bus with a Battery Passport to BVG in Berlin. This aligns with EU Regulation 2023/1542, which mandates Battery Passports for all electric vehicle batteries by February 18, 2027, promoting transparency and sustainability in the rapidly growing battery industry. As the battery industry rapidly expands, with projections indicating a 17-fold growth by 2030, the Battery Passport’s success will depend on widespread adoption, technological advancements in recycling, and the development of robust verification mechanisms to ensure the reliability of reported data. The U.S. Department of Energy’s $3 billion funding initiative for battery production and recycling, including $735 million specifically for recycling projects, demonstrates a significant commitment to advancing LIBs recycling technologies and fostering a circular economy. American Battery Technology Company’s $144 million grant for a 100,000-tonne annual capacity recycling facility in South Carolina, creating 1,500 jobs, exemplifies how government partnerships and grant-funded facilities can drive technological innovation, workforce development, and community engagement in the battery recycling sector. With global LIB demand projected to reach 4.7 TWh by 2030, the effectiveness of these grant-funded facilities in creating a truly circular battery economy will depend on their ability to produce battery-grade materials at competitive costs while adapting to evolving battery chemistries and manufacturing processes. To promote sustainable practices in the LIB industry, a combination of financial incentives and regulatory support is recommended, including the Lithium-Ion Recycling Prize, tax credits for recycling technologies, subsidies for using recycled materials, and assistance with regulatory compliance. These measures should be complemented by comprehensive public education strategies, encompassing targeted campaigns, school partnerships, digital resources, and student-led projects, to raise awareness about responsible battery use and recycling practices, thereby fostering a more sustainable LIB ecosystem. The success of these efforts will ultimately depend on their ability to keep pace with rapid technological advancements and shifting market dynamics in the evolving LIB ecosystem. Environmental regulations (13) are crucial for addressing sustainability challenges in the LIB industry, with the EPA classifying end-of-life LIBs as hazardous waste under RCRA due to ignitability and reactivity characteristics. The EPA recommends managing these batteries as universal waste, providing streamlined handling requirements and facilitating easier recycling and proper disposal. To further resolve materials sustainability challenges, regulations could incorporate Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) programs, mandatory recycling targets similar to the lead-acid battery industry’s > 95% recycling rate, and design for recycling requirements, while also supporting research and development of recycling technologies like the ReCell Center funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The success of these regulations will depend on their ability to balance environmental protection with the projected 17-fold growth in the battery industry by 2030, while also addressing technical hurdles and market volatility affecting recycled materials’ viability. The blockchain-based (14) platforms for battery tracking enhance transparency across the entire LIBs supply chain, from production to disposal is methodically reviewed. The study highlights blockchain’s effectiveness in addressing LIB industry challenges, including preventing clandestine markets, reducing pollutant release through improved tracking, and supporting electric vehicle implementation, with the potential to foster greater trust and efficiency in the rapidly growing battery market. As the LIB market is projected to grow significantly, the scalability and adaptability of blockchain solutions to evolving battery chemistries and manufacturing processes remain critical concerns that require further research and development. To address sustainability challenges in LIB production for electric vehicles, it is recommended to intensify research on alternative technologies like sodium-ion batteries (SIBs), improve battery design for increased efficiency and longevity, invest in robust recycling infrastructure, and optimize supply chains, all of which are crucial for meeting rising global EV demand while minimizing environmental impact. The author’s team has developed scalable hard carbon anode (15) and sodium powder (16) technology for SIBs mitigating first cycle Coulombic inefficiencies, aiming to decrease dependence on critical materials and improve battery performance. As the industry evolves, a holistic approach involving collaboration between sectors, advanced recycling technologies, and robust supply chain optimization will be crucial to balance technological advancement with sustainability goals. Battery chemistries beyond lithium-ion are crucial for ensuring materials sustainability and meeting future energy demands. Two key aspects highlight their importance: Addressing resource limitations: Alternative chemistries like sodium-ion, potassium-ion, (17) eighth most abundant magnesium-ion, (18) zinc-ion (19) and calcium-ion batteries offer sustainable and scalable energy storage solutions using more abundant materials. Meeting growing energy demands: In the sustainable scenario, the demand for battery cells could reach 10,000 GWh in 2040. Alternative battery technologies are essential to meet this demand while reducing reliance on critical materials. For example, sodium-ion batteries are projected to reach a market share of approximately 39% by 2040. (20) As research progresses, a diversified approach to battery technology development will be essential to balance performance, sustainability, and economic viability in the rapidly evolving energy storage landscape. The comprehensive review of LIB recycling reveals significant potential for high material recovery rates, (21) with reported recoveries of 92% Mn, 90% Ni, 89% Li, and 82% Co from spent LIBs after 72 h of leaching. The study introduces a “green score” concept to compare pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical, and direct recycling processes, offering a quantitative approach to assess environmental impacts and addressing critical aspects of LIB recycling, including waste collection, segregation approaches, treatment methods, and related economics, which is encouraged. The viewpoint underscores the need for robust collection strategies, standardized assessment methods, and policy incentives to address the projected growth in LIB waste and foster a sustainable circular economy for battery materials. The European Battery Regulation, which entered into force on August 17, 2023, introduces comprehensive measures to address social and environmental issues in battery production, including a battery passport system for traceability and sustainability requirements. These regulations, along with international standards adoption, aim to reduce battery carbon footprint by up to 50% and eliminate human rights violations in the supply chain by 2030, while targeting a 70% collection rate for portable batteries by the same year. Artificial intelligence (AI) (22) enhances LIB sustainability by designing materials using less lithium, streamlining technology development, and creating digital resources to educate the public on responsible battery practices. The LIB Critical Materials Sustainability Act aims to enhance recycling and management of LIBs by promoting critical material recovery and establishing a robust domestic supply chain. Backed by the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law’s $7 billion allocation, this initiative strengthens the U.S. economy through job creation and a resilient EV battery supply chain. As the global battery demand is projected to grow significantly, with the EU battery market expected to hundreds of billion annually, the regulation’s effectiveness in balancing innovation, sustainability, and economic viability remains to be fully realized. V.G.P. expresses gratitude to the Davidson School of Chemical Engineering at Purdue University for granting time off for the Fulbright Specialist Program. He also thanks the U.S. Department of State and the Fulbright Foreign Scholarship Board for selecting him for this award, which took place at the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden, hosted by Prof. Vadim Kessler. This program aims to exchange knowledge and establish partnerships that benefit participants, institutions, and communities in both the U.S. and abroad through various educational and training activities in chemistry education. This article references 23 other publications. This article has not yet been cited by other publications.