Oscillations of the Wandering Mind: Neural Evidence for Distinct Exploration/Exploitation Strategies in Younger and Older Adults

Abstract

This study traced the neurophysiological signals of fluctuating attention and task-related processing to ascertain the mechanistic basis of transient strategic shifts between competing task focus and mind-wandering, as expressed by the ‘exploitation/exploration’ framework, and explored how they are differentially affected with age. Thirty-four younger (16 female, mean age 22 years) and 34 healthy older (20 female, mean age 71 years) adults performed the Gradual Contrast Change Detection task; monitoring a continuously presented flickering annulus for intermittent gradual contrast reductions and responding to experience sampling probes to discriminate the nature of their thoughts at discrete moments. Electroencephalography and pupillometry were concurrently recorded during target- and probe-related intervals. Older adults tracked the downward stimulus trajectory with greater sensory integrity (reduced target SSVEP amplitude) and demonstrated earlier initiation of evidence accumulation (earlier onset CPP), attenuated variability in the attentional signal (posterior alpha) and more robust phasic pupillary responses to the target, suggesting steadier attentional engagement with age. Younger adults only exhibited intermittent sensory encoding, indexed by greater variability in the sensory (SSVEP) and attentional (alpha) signals before mind-wandering relative to focused states. Attentional variability was accompanied by disrupted behavioural performance and reduced task-related neural processing, independent of age group. Together, this elucidates distinct performance strategies employed by both groups. Older adults suspended mind-wandering and implemented an exploitative oscillation strategy to circumvent their reduced cognitive resources and allay potential behavioural costs. Conversely, younger adults exhibited greater exploration through mind-wandering, utilising their greater cognitive resources to flexibly alternate between competing goal-directed and mind-wandering strategies, with limited costs.