Fumarate integrates metabolism and immunity in diseases.

Abstract

Fumarate is a key metabolite produced primarily by the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) and urea cycles. In addition to having a metabolic role, its electrophilicity enables it to covalently modify cysteines; moreover, because of its α-ketoglutarate (α-KG)-like structure, it can also act as a competitive inhibitor of α-KG-dependent dioxygenases for epigenetic remodeling. Recent advances have broadened the role of fumarate as a bridge between metabolism and both innate and adaptive immunity, suggesting potentially important functions in anticancer immunity and autoimmune diseases. Here we review the connections between fumarate metabolism and immunity; we describe the mechanisms of fumarate regulation in cancer, autoimmunity, and other diseases; and we explore the clinical implications of fumarate and its esters for immunotherapy.