Advances in 3D-printed triboelectric nanogenerators and supercapacitors for self-sustainable energy systems

Abstract

In the current era of intelligent systems, the advancement of self-powered energy systems is crucial. With the ubiquitous development of small-scale stable energy systems, a transformative impact on Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystems has been observed. These systems require self-sustaining power-generation and storage capabilities. Triboelectric Nanogenerators (TENGs) have emerged as a prime solution for harvesting mechanical energy at small scales, particularly low-frequency energy, which is often overlooked because of its adaptability to harsh conditions. Supercapacitors (SCs) have attracted attention as promising energy-storage counterparts for TENGs because of their exceptional charge/discharge efficiencies and output characteristics. The integration of 3D printing (3DP) technology with TENGs and SCs, which leverages benefits, such as rapid prototyping, cost efficiency, and compact design, has been proposed as a revolutionary step in enhancing multifaceted artificial intelligence applications. However, the development of 3DP technologies for advanced TENG and SC systems presents challenges, often with a trade-off between optimal performance and practical application. This review methodically categorizes the advancements in surface modification, mechanical systems, and applications of 3DP-based TENGs, along with the material and electrode design and configuration of 3DP-based SCs. Furthermore, it addresses the challenges faced by each category. Thus, this review explored the challenges and prospects of integrating 3DP-based TENGs and SCs as a novel, self-sustainable energy solution to catalyze the next wave of rapid IoT ecosystem development.