Under the radar: The availability of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in South America and implications for avian scavenger populations

Abstract

In the late 1990s, diclofenac, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), was identified as the cause of the Old World vulture population decline on the Indian subcontinent. Diclofenac and other NSAIDs (e.g., flunixin) have also led to the mortality of other vulture species in Europe. However, the threat to raptors from these drugs on other continents remains largely unknown. We conducted a search of veterinary pharmaceutical products registered in all 10 Spanish and Portuguese-speaking countries across South America. All products containing either diclofenac or flunixin were recorded, along with the intended species and product description. We found diclofenac and flunixin are approved for veterinary use in every country searched. Many available products exist as combination therapies (combined with antibiotic drugs) or are marketed solely as antimicrobial drugs, despite containing NSAIDs. With at least 21 South American scavenging raptor species potentially susceptible to exposure to NSAIDs, the plausible risk to the majority of these species has not been evaluated to date. Coupled with a growing livestock agricultural sector across South America, there exists an urgent need to generate scientific evidence to understand the risk of these drugs to South American avian scavengers and to establish suitable management strategies to prevent future population declines.