HYPOTHESIS: Lipid-protecting disulfide bridges are the missing molecular link between ApoE4 and sporadic Alzheimer's disease in humans

Abstract

As the principal lipid transporter in the human brain, apolipoprotein E (ApoE) is tasked with transport and protection of highly vulnerable lipids that are required to support and remodel neuronal membranes, in a process that is dependent on ApoE receptors. APOE allele variants that encode proteins differing only in the number of cysteine (Cys)-to-arginine (Arg) exchanges (ApoE2 [2 Cys], ApoE3 [1 Cys], ApoE4 [0 Cys]) comprise the strongest genetic risk factor for sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD); however, the specific molecular feature(s) and resultant mechanisms that underlie these isoform-dependent effects are unknown. One signature feature of Cys is the capacity to form disulfide (Cys-Cys) bridges, which are required to form disulfide-linked dimers and multimers. Here we propose the overarching hypothesis that super-ability (for ApoE2), intermediate ability (for ApoE3) or inability (for ApoE4) to form lipid-protecting intermolecular disulfide bridges, is the central molecular determinant accounting for the disparate effects of APOE alleles on AD risk and amyloid-β and Tau pathologies in humans. We posit that presence and abundance of Cys in human ApoE3 and ApoE2 respectively, conceal and protect vulnerable lipids transported by ApoE from peroxidation by enabling formation of disulfide-linked homo- and heteromeric ApoE complexes. We thus propose that inability to form intermolecular disulfide bridges makes ApoE4-containing lipoproteins uniquely vulnerable to peroxidation and its downstream consequences. Consistent with our model, we found that brain-enriched polyunsaturated fatty acid-containing phospholipids induce disulfide-dependent dimerization and multimerization of ApoE3 and ApoE2 (but not ApoE4). By contrast, incubation with the peroxidation-resistant lipid DMPC or cholesterol alone had minimal effects on dimerization. These novel concepts and findings are integrated into our unifying model implicating peroxidation of ApoE-containing lipoproteins, with consequent ApoE receptor-ligand disruption, as initiating molecular events that ultimately lead to AD in humans.