Beyond visits: Investigating the restorative pathways and cumulative effects of park engagement and sustained exposure on psychological well-being with park type as a moderator

Abstract

Urban green spaces have increasingly been recognized for their role in promoting residents' health and well-being. This study explores how visitors' park usage and perceptions of park restorativeness influence restorative experiences and the potential cumulative health benefits of sustained exposure. It integrates both single and sustained exposure through structural equation modeling (SEM) to examine the complex relationships between park engagement, perceived restorativeness, restoration outcomes, and psychological health and well-being (PWB). The study was conducted across four park types—comprehensive, community, specialized, and pocket parks—within the main urban area of Nanjing, with a sample size of 1562. The results indicate that park engagement has a significant total effect (β = 0.332) on PWB, while perceived restorativeness contributes a smaller but meaningful total effect (β = 0.134). The mediating effects of restoration experience and sustained exposure were also significant. Furthermore, multi-group analysis (MGA) revealed the significant moderating effect of park type. In comparison to other park types, comprehensive parks had the strongest influence of perceived restorativeness on PWB, while specialized parks showed a stronger effect of park engagement on health outcomes. This study uncovers the potential mechanisms through which urban green spaces influence PWB, highlights the varying roles that different park types play in promoting mental health outcomes, and offers insights for green space planning and design aimed at enhancing public well-being, while providing empirical evidence to guide visitors' park engagement.