Genomic and phenotypic characterization of staphylococci isolated from the skin of non-human primates.

Abstract

The growth of wildlife tourism coupled with continued deforestation has resulted in increased contact between non-human primates (NHPs) and humans. Such events may promote the transmission of potentially pathogenic bacteria such as Staphylococcus spp. However, the presence and associated virulence of staphylococci associated with NHPs remain poorly characterized. To help address this, we isolated staphylococci from the skin of four NHP species housed at a UK zoo and characterized their antimicrobial resistance, virulence factors and prophage. We recovered 82 isolates from mannitol salt agar, of which 28 were tentatively confirmed as staphylococci by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Fourteen isolates were determined to be unique, based on differences in their 16S rRNA gene sequences and origins of isolation. Whole-genome sequencing of the 14 isolates and subsequent genomic analysis identified 5 species, belonging to the genus Staphylococcus (Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus pasteuri, Staphylococcus saprophyticus and Staphylococcus warneri). Bioinformatic prediction of antimicrobial resistance genes identified a total of 85 resistance determinants across all 14 isolates, potentially rendering them resistant to a range of antibiotic classes. However, phenotypic testing revealed only a single case of clinical resistance. Isolates belonging to the species S. pasteuri were identified as the most proficient biofilm formers. Potentially complete prophages were identified in 11 of the sequenced isolates. Prophage JCT0104_p1, identified within the genome of S. aureus JCT0104, was found to encode the virulence factor staphylokinase, which is associated with pathogenesis in humans. Our findings contribute to the limited knowledge of the diversity and characteristics of staphylococci residing on the skin of captive NHPs.