Eco-friendly nanoparticle phytosynthesis via plant extracts: Mechanistic insights, recent advances, and multifaceted uses

Abstract

This review explores the phytosynthesis of nanoparticles (NPs) using plant extracts, emphasizing mechanistic insights, recent advancements, and their diverse applications. The green and cost-effective nature of phytosynthesis makes it an attractive alternative to conventional nanoparticle synthesis, with phytochemicals such as flavonoids, phenolics, and alkaloids facilitating metal ion reduction and stabilization. The review highlights key medical applications, including the anticancer potential of gold nanoparticles, which have demonstrated apoptosis induction in cancer cells, and their use in theranostic structures for simultaneous diagnosis and treatment. In environmental science, phytosynthesized iron and silver nanoparticles have shown over 90 % efficiency in heavy metal adsorption and pollutant degradation, contributing to sustainable remediation strategies. In agriculture, nanofertilizers synthesized via phytosynthesis have enhanced crop yields by up to 30 % while reducing chemical fertilizer dependence. Despite these advancements, obstacles persist in scaling up production, ensuring batch-to-batch reproducibility, and fully elucidating nanoparticle interactions at the molecular level. Standardizing synthesis protocols, optimizing plant metabolite compositions, and conducting extensive in vivo studies will be crucial in translating laboratory findings into real-world applications. By resolving these difficulties through interdisciplinary collaborations, phytosynthesized nanoparticles can revolutionize nanomedicine, agriculture, and environmental sustainability, paving the way for the next generation of eco-friendly technological innovations.