Solution landscape of droplets on rough surfaces: wetting transition and directional transport

Abstract

Droplets on rough surfaces can exhibit various stationary states that are crucial for designing hydrophobic materials and enabling directional liquid transport. Here, we introduce a phase-field saddle dynamics method to construct the solution landscape of wetting transition and directional transport on pillared substrates. By applying this method, we reveal the full range of Cassie–Baxter and Wenzel states, along with the complete wetting transition paths. We further elucidate the mechanisms of directional droplet transport on both hydrophobic and hydrophilic surfaces, demonstrating how surface design can influence directional movement.