A Perspective on Pathways Toward Commercial Sodium-Ion Batteries

Abstract

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have been widely adopted in the automotive industry, with an annual global production exceeding 1000 GWh. Despite their success, the escalating demand for LIBs has created concerns on supply chain issues related to key elements, such as lithium, cobalt, and nickel. Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) are emerging as a promising alternative due to the high abundance and low cost of sodium and other raw materials. Nevertheless, the commercialization of SIBs, particularly for grid storage and automotive applications, faces significant hurdles. This perspective article aims to identify the critical challenges in making SIBs viable from both chemical and techno-economic perspectives. First, a brief comparison of the materials chemistry, working mechanisms, and cost between mainstream LIB systems and prospective SIB systems is provided. The intrinsic challenges of SIBs regarding storage stability, capacity utilization, cycle stability, calendar life, and safe operation of cathode, electrolyte, and anode materials are discussed. Furthermore, issues related to the scalability of material production, materials engineering feasibility, and energy-dense electrode design and fabrication are illustrated. Finally, promising pathways are listed and discussed toward achieving high-energy-density, stable, cost-effective SIBs.