Harnessing 3D printing for tailored TiO₂ structures redefining organic pollutant degradation

Abstract

The advent of three-dimensional (3D) printing has revolutionized the design and performance of titanium dioxide (TiO₂) photocatalysts, overcoming key limitations of conventional fabrication techniques. In contrast to traditional TiO₂, which has drawbacks of poor recyclability, limited specific surface area, and inefficient charge separation, 3D-printed TiO₂ architectures exhibit hierarchical porosity, improved light trapping, and tunable architectures leading to superior photocatalytic efficiency. Herein the comparative performance of Direct Ink Writing (DIW), Fused Deposition Method (FDM), Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), and Stereolithography (SLA) is discussed emphasizing their critical roles in photocatalyst design and fabrication. In addition, promising applications for removing antibiotics, dyes, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are summarized alongwith the discussion of challenges related to structural stability and scalability. Future directions including, the integration of machine learning for material optimization, incorporation of plasmonic and carbon-based materials, and adaptive light-responsive designs will lay the groundwork for emerging photocatalytic systems. Finally, this review also highlights the transformative potential of 3D-printed TiO₂ in achieving efficient, scalable, and sustainable environmental remediation.