Advances in microextraction techniques utilizing deep eutectic solvents for the extraction of antibiotics

Abstract

The emergence of antibiotic contamination in food, water, and environmental matrices has necessitated the development of efficient, sensitive, and environmentally sustainable analytical methods. Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) have attracted significant attention as green alternatives to conventional solvents owing to their tunable properties, low toxicity, and biodegradability. This review comprehensively explores recent advancements in DES-based microextraction techniques for antibiotic detection, including solid-phase microextraction, liquid-liquid microextraction, and vortex-assisted approaches. Integration with cutting-edge analytical instruments, such as high-performance liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry and ion-mobility spectrometry, has enhanced the selectivity and sensitivity of trace-level antibiotics.

Key challenges, such as DES viscosity and scalability, were critically examined alongside emerging solutions, including novel DES formulations and functional additives for improved extraction efficiency. This review underscores the role of DES-based microextraction in facilitating greener analytical practices, and highlights its potential for broader applications in environmental monitoring, pharmaceutical residue analysis, and food safety. By identifying the current limitations and offering strategies for future research, this review provides a valuable resource for advancing sustainable antibiotic extraction approaches.