Doping and defect engineering in carbon-based electrocatalysts for enhanced electrochemical CO2 reduction: From 0D to 3D materials

Abstract

The increasing atmospheric CO₂ levels and the urgent need for sustainable energy solutions have driven research into electrochemical CO₂ reduction. Carbon-based materials have received significant attention for their potential as electrocatalysts, yet their inert nature often limits their performance. Defect engineering and heteroatom doping have emerged as transformative approaches to overcome these limitations, enhancing both catalytic activity and Faradaic efficiency. This review systematically examines the role of these strategies across diverse carbon materials, including graphene, carbon nanotubes, carbon dots, and boron-doped diamond. Special attention is given to the incorporation of heteroatoms, such as nitrogen and boron, and the modulation of defect structures to optimize CO₂ reduction pathways. By exploring the interplay between dopant type, defect density, and material dimensionality, we provide a comprehensive understanding of how tailored carbon-based electrocatalysts can drive advancements in sustainable electrochemical CO₂ conversion. This work underscores the potential of defect-engineered and doped carbon materials to revolutionize the field of electrocatalysis, paving the way for innovative solutions to environmental and energy challenges.