Impact of smartphone distraction and alcohol intoxication on pedestrian risk-taking

Abstract

Background: An estimated 7,388 pedestrians died in motor-vehicle crashes in the United States in 2021. Two significant risks for pedestrian injuries and deaths are alcohol intoxication and smartphone distraction. The present research used a virtual reality simulator to evaluate the individual and joint impact of pedestrian distraction and intoxication on risk-taking while crossing the street. Methods: Thirty-nine participants completed two laboratory visits, during which they crossed the virtual street either after drinking alcohol to produce a BAC of 0.08 or after drinking a placebo, in randomized order. During each visit, they crossed the street both while distracted by texting and without distraction, also in randomized order. Five pedestrian safety outcomes were considered: unsafe crossings, time to contact with oncoming vehicles, start gap before entering a safe gap in traffic, distance to the closest oncoming vehicle as the crossing started, and missed opportunities to cross safely. Results: Intoxicated participants were more likely to cross unsafely. While distracted, participants missed more safe crossing opportunities, started crossing while closer to oncoming vehicles, and experienced more unsafe crossings. The interactional effect of intoxication and distraction was significant for the number of unsafe crossings and time to contact, with intoxicated pedestrians experiencing more unsafe crossings only when they were not distracted and distraction increasing unsafe crossings only among sober pedestrians. Conclusions: Both alcohol intoxication and smartphone distraction impacted pedestrian safety, individually and jointly. Results should inform the development of multifaceted prevention strategies, including road engineering, law enforcement, and efforts to reduce pedestrian risk through strategies like responsible beverage service practices. Practical applications: Overall, this study explored the isolated and interactional effects of alcohol intoxication and phone distraction on pedestrians, which should inform development of interventions to reduce risky pedestrian behavior and address pedestrian injury and mortality rates globally.