Advances in electrochemical sensors for paracetamol detection: Electrode materials, modifications, and analytical applications

Abstract

Paracetamol, a widely used analgesic and antipyretic drug, requires precise and reliable detection methods due to its extensive use and potential for toxicity in cases of overdose. Electrochemical sensing offers an attractive approach, combining simplicity, rapid response, cost-effectiveness, and high sensitivity. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent advancements in the electrochemical detection of paracetamol, focusing on various electrode types, including bare graphite, boron-doped diamond, pencil graphite, screen-printed, carbon paste, and glassy carbon electrodes. The modifications of these electrodes with emerging and critical materials such as nanostructured carbons, metal nanoparticles, and molecularly imprinted polymers are extensively discussed, emphasizing their impact on key analytical parameters such as sensitivity, selectivity, and detection limits. The analysis highlights the potential of these modified electrodes for applications ranging from pharmaceutical quality control to environmental and biological sample monitoring. By summarizing current progress and addressing the challenges in electrode design, this review aims to guide future developments in the field of electrochemical sensors for paracetamol detection.