Energy and environmental sustainability prospects for next-generation automotive batteries in China

Abstract

The electric vehicle industry's growth highlights traditional batteries' limitations in range and safety. This study, based on actual production data from China, employs Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to quantify the environmental impacts of solid-state batteries (SSB) and lithium‑sulfur batteries (LSB) from “cradle to gate”, aiming to provide a scientific basis and optimization paths for sustainable automotive industry development. The study also examines how variations in the power grid's energy structure over time and space affect the environmental impacts of next-generation battery production. Results show that manufacturing 1 kWh of SSB and LSB can reduce carbon emissions by 15 %–31 % and cumulative energy demand (CED) by 21 %–31 %, respectively, but the drying room's environmental impact proportion rises compared to traditional batteries. Key materials like cathode and anode active materials significantly affect ecological indicators. Notably, nickel sulfate in SSB contributes over 85 % to photochemical oxidation and acidification indicators, while the sulfur cathode in LSB affects all indicators minimally (<3 %), demonstrating superior environmental performance. In Northern China, with low renewable energy generation, carbon emissions of LSB, Li2S-P2S5-based sulfide SSB, and Li6.4La3Zr1.4Ta0.6O12-based oxidic SSB increase by 5 %, 18 %, and 13 %, respectively. In Southwest China, with a higher renewable energy share, emissions decrease by 9 %, 11 %, and 8 %. As China's power grid energy structure upgrades, expected carbon emissions reductions are 8 %, 12 %, and 10 %, respectively. This indicates that sulfide solid-state batteries are most sensitive to power grid energy structure changes, followed by oxide solid-state batteries, with lithium‑sulfur batteries being the least sensitive. The study concludes that key battery materials' resource consumption and environmental issues remain major challenges for next-generation battery technologies. Developing eco-friendly battery materials, recycling technologies, and increasing local power grids' renewable energy share is vital for reducing next-generation battery production's environmental impact.