Photoelectrochemical sensing strategies for cardiovascular biomarkers: A review

Abstract

Cardiovascular diseases remain a critical global health challenge, necessitating advanced diagnostic tools for early detection and monitoring. This review comprehensively examines the emerging field of photoelectrochemical (PEC) sensing strategies for cardiovascular biomarker detection, highlighting recent technological innovations and applications. We analyze various PEC detection mechanisms, including direct label-free approaches and indirect amplification methods, emphasizing their roles in achieving enhanced sensitivity and specificity. The review explores crucial developments in semiconductor nanostructures, composite materials, and two-dimensional materials, detailing their integration into sensing platforms. Particular attention is given to recognition elements, including antibodies and aptamers, and their optimization for specific biomarker detection. Recent advances in signal amplification strategies, such as enzymatic labeling and nanoparticle-based enhancement, are discussed in the context of achieving clinically relevant detection limits. The review also addresses current technical challenges, including matrix effects in biological samples and long-term stability issues, while highlighting promising solutions through materials engineering and device design. Understanding these aspects is crucial for advancing PEC biosensor development toward practical clinical applications.