The Influence of Topography on the Global Terrestrial Water Cycle

Abstract

Topography affects the distribution and movement of water on Earth, yet new insights about topographic controls continue to surprise us and exciting puzzles remain. Here we combine literature review and data synthesis to explore the influence of topography on the global terrestrial water cycle, from the atmosphere down to the groundwater. Above the land surface, topography induces gradients and contrasts in water and energy availability. Long-term precipitation usually increases with elevation in the mid-latitudes, while it peaks at low- to mid-elevations in the tropics. Potential evaporation tends to decrease with elevation in all climate zones. At the land surface, topography is expressed in snow distribution, vegetation zonation, geomorphic landforms, the critical zone, and drainage networks. Evaporation and vegetation activity are often highest at low- to mid-elevations where neither temperature, nor energy availability, nor water availability—often modulated by lateral moisture redistribution—impose strong limitations. Below the land surface, topography drives the movement of groundwater from local to continental scales. In many steep upland regions, groundwater systems are well connected to streams and provide ample baseflow, and streams often start losing water in foothills where bedrock transitions into highly permeable sediment. We conclude by presenting organizing principles, discussing the implications of climate change and human activity, and identifying data needs and knowledge gaps. A defining feature resulting from topography is the presence of gradients and contrasts, whose interactions explain many of the patterns we observe in nature and how they might change in the future.