The Relationship Between Prenatal, Perinatal, and Postnatal Factors and ADHD: The Role of Nutrition, Diet, and Stress

Abstract

Attention-Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD) is a neurobehavioral syndrome affecting children aged 6–17 with symptoms manifesting before age 12. ADHD presents heterogeneously and is associated with various psychiatric disorders. The cause remains elusive, but genetic and environmental factors, brain region maturation delays, and neurotransmitter dysregulation are implicated. Effective treatment requires a multi-disciplinary approach, primarily involving pharmacological and behavioral intervention. Stimulants like methylphenidate and amphetamines are first-line medications, but non-stimulants may be considered for some patients. However, stimulants face challenges related to misuse, dependence, and long-term tolerability issues. The etiology of ADHD involved genetic predisposition, environmental influences, and prenatal, perinatal, and postnatal factors. Prenatal causes encompass maternal diet, alcohol consumption, viral infections, and stress. Postnatal factors include head trauma, meningitis, toxin, nutritional deficiencies, as well as iodine deficiency and hypothyroidism. The gut microbiome's role in ADHD is emerging, influencing neurodevelopment through microbiota–gut–brain axis. Understanding these diverse etiological factors is essential for comprehensive ADHD management.