Graphene quantum dots modified electrodes as electrochemical sensing tool towards the detection of codeine in biological fluids and soft drinks

IF 5.3 2区化学 Q1 CHEMISTRY, ANALYTICAL

Microchimica Acta Pub Date : 2024-11-04 DOI:10.1007/s00604-024-06787-2

Lucía Ferrer-Biechy, M. Laura Soriano, Rafael Lucena, Soledad Cárdenas

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Abstract

An electroanalytical method based on disposable screen-printed carbon electrodes modified with non-toxic carbonaceous nanodots is proposed as a reliable and effective device for codeine determination in biological fluids and soft drinks. Graphene quantum dots (GQDs), carbon quantum dots (CQDs) and carbon nanodots (CNDs) were evaluated as electrode modifiers for the determination of the drug. The electroactive areas of the modified electrodes were assessed by cyclic voltammetry using potassium ferricyanide. Results demonstrated that GQDs provided the best analytical response for codeine, displaying an intense and well-defined anodic wave approximately 0.9 V vs reference electrode. The method exhibits an acceptable linear dynamic range, low limits of detection and quantification (0.21 and 0.73 µM, respectively), and satisfactory precision (below 3.9% expressed as relative standard deviation (RSD)) in saliva. Only the analysis of biofluids requires a simple extraction protocol. The feasibility and applicability of this novel approach were assessed by determining codeine in different matrices, with recoveries ranging from 69 to 112%. This cost-effective, simple, easily miniaturised and portable method was applied not only to biofluids but also for the direct detection of codeine in soft drinks combined with a codeine-enriched syrup, a medication that is being used to adulterate beverages, particularly at specific events (drinking and nightclub parties). There is no need for any sample treatment, demonstrating its versatility in analysing beverages for potential adulteration as well.

Graphical abstract

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石墨烯量子点修饰电极作为电化学传感工具，用于检测生物液体和软饮料中的可待因。

提出了一种基于用无毒碳质纳米点修饰的一次性丝网印刷碳电极的电分析方法，该方法是测定生物液体和软饮料中可待因的可靠而有效的装置。评估了石墨烯量子点（GQDs）、碳量子点（CQDs）和碳纳米点（CNDs）作为电极改性剂在药物测定中的应用。使用铁氰化钾通过循环伏安法对修饰电极的电活性区域进行了评估。结果表明，GQD 为可待因提供了最佳的分析响应，与参比电极相比，可待因显示出约 0.9 V 的强烈而清晰的阳极波。该方法在唾液中具有可接受的线性动态范围、较低的检测限和定量限（分别为 0.21 和 0.73 µM）以及令人满意的精确度（以相对标准偏差 (RSD) 表示，低于 3.9%）。对生物流体的分析只需要一个简单的提取方案。通过测定不同基质中的可待因，对这种新方法的可行性和适用性进行了评估，回收率在 69% 到 112% 之间。这种成本效益高、简单、易于微型化和便携的方法不仅适用于生物液体，还可用于直接检测软饮料中的可待因和富含可待因的糖浆。无需对样品进行任何处理，这表明它在分析饮料中的潜在掺假物方面也具有多功能性。

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来源期刊

Microchimica Acta 化学-分析化学

CiteScore

9.80

自引率

5.30%

发文量

410

审稿时长

2.7 months

期刊介绍： As a peer-reviewed journal for analytical sciences and technologies on the micro- and nanoscale, Microchimica Acta has established itself as a premier forum for truly novel approaches in chemical and biochemical analysis. Coverage includes methods and devices that provide expedient solutions to the most contemporary demands in this area. Examples are point-of-care technologies, wearable (bio)sensors, in-vivo-monitoring, micro/nanomotors and materials based on synthetic biology as well as biomedical imaging and targeting.