Phosphorus Speciation, Migration and Transformation in Seawater and Sediments and Potential Role in Starfish Outbreaks of the Xisha Islands, Northern South China Sea

Abstract

Periodic outbreaks of crown-of-thorns starfish have led to severe coral reef degradation, with one hypothesized cause being eutrophication. Phosphorus (P) is one of the driving factors for eutrophication, but researches on the spatiotemporal distributions of P in coral reefs are limited, impeding our understanding of the P cycling in coral reefs and its correlation with starfish outbreaks. This study undertook an analysis of various P species, migration and transformation in seawater, sediments, and crown-of-thorns starfish within the coral reefs of the Xisha Islands, northern South China Sea. The results show that in seawater, P predominantly existed in the dissolved phase, with organic P constituting the largest fraction (>67%). Conversely, in sediments, P primarily existed as inorganic form (43%−95%), with calcium-bound P comprising the majority (26%−46%). Notably, exchangeable P accounted for a relatively smaller fraction (9%−20%) but played a significant role as a source of P released from sediments into seawater (0.01−0.17 mmol m⁻² hr⁻¹). During starfish outbreaks, starfish (1,000 individuals per hectare) assimilated P from seawater via phytoplankton or corals, resulting in substantial accumulation of both organic and inorganic P in their tissues (69−315 μmol g⁻¹). Meanwhile, starfish excretion released P back into the seawater, which contributes to the migration and transformation of various P forms. Historical data also show a close relationship between P content and starfish density. These findings highlight the interactions between starfish and P cycling within coral reefs, and provide valuable insights into conservation and restoration on coral reefs, especially those severely affected by starfish outbreaks.