May fortune's lantern burn serene: An analysis of golden age Halloween postcards as middle-class promotional culture

IF 0.1 0 HUMANITIES, MULTIDISCIPLINARY
Adrienne Darrah
{"title":"May fortune's lantern burn serene: An analysis of golden age Halloween postcards as middle-class promotional culture","authors":"Adrienne Darrah","doi":"10.1111/jacc.13580","DOIUrl":null,"url":null,"abstract":"<p>Collecting Halloween postcards has become increasingly popular in modern times (Hughes &amp; Kinsella, <span>1998</span>; Nicholson, <span>1994</span>). A quick search of the auction website eBay at any given moment returns thousands of Halloween postcards available for auction or purchase. While the demand and value of postcards continues to wane, the demand and value of Halloween postcards from the early twentieth century is high, with some of the rarest postcards fetching hundreds of dollars.</p><p>Dating from approximately 1900 to 1920 and aided by a rise in mass production and mass distribution, the golden age of postcards coincided with the introduction of the middle class and increases in mass consumption in the United States. As the middle class grew, a renegotiation of the power structure between men and women ensued (Gifford, <span>2013</span>, <span>2016</span>; Simmons, <span>2003</span>). Due to the changes in the power dynamic between the genders, women not only began to network outside of the home but also participated in the creation and dissemination of sociocultural norms.</p><p>As women became responsible for purchasing their households' goods and services, many agreed they were becoming the country's primary purchasers (Golia, <span>2016</span>; Hirshon, <span>2020</span>; Williams, <span>2017</span>). This newfound responsibility helped women express themselves in ways they had been unable to do so before. Sending turn of the century postcards became a way for women to firmly establish and promote their importance while communicating how they desired to see their world.</p><p>Antithetical to the popularity of golden age postcards' is the seemingly innocuous nature of the ephemera. The mass adoption of holiday postcard exchange by middle-class women during this time justifies postcards finding their place as an extension of the turn of the century promotional culture. Extending beyond advertising and marketing, promotional culture has come to encompass all types of messaging meant to influence society including communications associated with public relations, propaganda, entertainment, and the news, to name a few (Wernick, <span>1988</span>).</p><p>As cultural artifacts, golden age postcards are emblematic of the sociocultural values that were introduced and perpetuated in the early twentieth century. This study aims to illustrate that golden age Halloween postcards intended to serve as a means of empowerment for early middle-class women as has been posited by Daniel Gifford in his <i>American Holiday Postcards, 1905–1915: Imagery and Context</i> (<span>2013</span>). In addition, this study will also illustrate the unspoken fears that troubled these women. Though not limited to the following, these unspoken fears include failing to find love and marriage and failing to keep children at a high level of society.</p><p>In an effort to emulate the elite-class's tradition of exchanging Christmas and Valentine's Day greeting cards, sending postcards became popular among the middle class during the turn of the century (Shank, <span>2004</span>). Inexpensive postage and the middle-class's expansion led to a meteoric rise in postcard adoption. As postcards' popularity increased, publishers expanded their offerings to include holidays beyond Christmas and Valentine's Day, including Halloween (Schmidt, <span>1991</span>; Shank, <span>2004</span>).</p><p>A thematic content analysis of Halloween postcards postmarked between 1901 and 1920 was utilized for this study. The goal of the analysis was to examine the prevalence of existing themes found within the images of golden age Halloween postcards (Berg, <span>2008</span>). The dichotomous, categorical variables used in this study required the data be analyzed using frequency tables and cross-tabulations. These tests were carried out utilizing the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Developed by IBM, SPSS is a statistical software that is used to analyze and model datasets.</p><p>Rituals that meant to divine an individuals' prospects in life and in love played a significant role in Halloween festivities since the time of the Druids and Celts. Some of these rituals emigrated to the United States with the influx of Irish immigrants in the mid-1800s, and the more popular rituals can be found illustrated in golden age Halloween postcards. Given the focus on the importance of marriage during the early twentieth century, one of the most common divinations performed was seeing a future spouse or love's face in a mirror by candlelight at the stroke of midnight on Halloween (Figure 2).</p><p>The mirror ritual was so prevalent that it could be practiced in different settings utilizing different elements. Participants could stand, be seated, or walk up or down the stairs forward or backward. On certain occasions, the participant might eat an apple from the tip of a knife, eat an unsalted hard-boiled egg or comb their hair while looking into the mirror. In one version, the candle was replaced by moonlight. Even the mirror changed depending on need. In some instances, a full-length mirror might be used while in other a handheld mirror sufficed. The commonalities in this ritual, however, are the mirror, midnight on Halloween, light and, most importantly, the future spouse's face. This is why it comes as no surprise that the top two themes for rituals found in this study are candle (<i>n</i> = 130; 20.2 percent) and mirror (<i>n</i> = 45; 7 percent) (Table 1).</p><p>While candles were often used in Halloween rituals, it is worth noting that the prominence of candles during autumnal festivities extends beyond divinations. This accounts for why candles significantly outnumber mirrors in this study's analysis. From ancient times through the mid-1800s bonfires were lit on the hillsides in Ireland, Scotland, and Wales on October 31 to celebrate the ending summer season and to ask God for protection through the upcoming year (Kelley, <span>1919</span>). As the populations grew and the customs associated with lighting bonfires began to die, individuals started to light candles in their stead to honor the waning sun and God (Figure 3).</p><p>Similar to candles, apples played a prominent role in early Halloween celebrations and are found frequently on Halloween postcards, including those in this study (<i>n</i> = 127; 19.7 percent). Being both plentiful and a symbol of immortality and temptation, apples are an integral part of several divination rituals. While bobbing for apples eventually became a source of merriment for children during autumnal festivities, in the early twentieth-century apple bobbing or <i>apple ducking</i> was a means for predicting one's future love (Figure 4). As such, apple bobbing (<i>n</i> = 35; 5.4 percent) was found the most frequently in the sample. Apple bobbing was followed by snap apple (<i>n</i> = 22; 3.4 percent), a game that preceded apple bobbing which required an individual bite into an apple that was hung from a string to predict one's future love (Figure 5). The final apple ritual was the apple peel test (<i>n</i> = 24; 3.7 percent). This test required an individual peel an apple in one long piece and throw the peel over their left shoulder (Figure 6). When the individual turned to observe the peel, it would spell the first initial of the individual's future spouse or love's first name or the individual's future last name.</p><p>Based on Gifford's argument regarding the role of witches as an empowerment tool for middle-class women, this study aimed to understand the frequency with which beautiful and sexy witches and witches in general could be found illustrated on early twentieth-century postcards (<span>2013</span>, <span>2016</span>). In this study's sample, witches were identified on 32.1 percent (<i>n</i> = 207) of the postcards. Postcards with witches were coded based on whether the witch was ugly, old, young, beautiful or sexy. Ugly (<i>n</i> = 128; 19.8 percent) accounted for the most frequent attribute followed by old (<i>n</i> = 95; 14.7 percent). Although young (<i>n</i> = 89; 13.8 percent) was found almost as frequently as old, beautiful (<i>n</i> = 34; 5.3 percent) and sexy (<i>n</i> = 14; 2.2 percent) occurred the least frequently. In instances, in which the physical attributes of a witch could not be discerned, for example, the witch's face could not be seen, the witch was simply coded as a witch (Figure 2).</p><p>Given the precarious nature of the middle-class's standing in society during the turn of the century, this study aimed to understand the importance of individual expectations. Not only was the frequency of adults and children within the sample measured, but a cross-tabulation analysis was run to measure the significance among each group and their expected social outcomes. For adults, women (<i>n</i> = 80; 12.4 percent) could be found the most frequently in the sample followed by women and men together (<i>n</i> = 66; 10.2 percent). Men were found the least frequently in only 0.9 percent (<i>n</i> = 6) of the sample. Girls and boys (<i>n</i> = 85; 13.2 percent) were most often found together, followed closely by boys alone (<i>n</i> = 82; 12.7 percent), which were found more often than girls alone (<i>n</i> = 51; 7.9 percent). While a crossover of adults and children was rare, it happened twice in the sample when a woman and child were displayed together. This pairing comprised of 0.3 percent of the study sample.</p><p>A cross-tabulation was run for adults to measure the significance of each group in relation to rituals, wanting love, having love, exhibiting fear, and/or attending a party. While the measurement for men returned no statistical significance at the 0.05 level, the significance found for women at the 0.05 level included rituals (<i>p</i> &lt; 0.001), wanting love (<i>p</i> &lt; 0.001), and exhibiting fear (<i>p</i> = 0.041). Alternatively, the results for women and men together showed significance at all five levels.</p><p>A cross-tabulation analysis was also run to measure significance in relation to a child being clean, well-behaved, or rowdy; exhibiting fear; or attending a party. Each group returned significance at the 0.05 level for being clean (<i>p</i> &lt; 0.001) and well-behaved (<i>p</i> &lt; 0.001) while the boys and girls and boys groups each returned additional significance for being rowdy (<i>p</i> &lt; 0.001) and exhibiting fear (<i>p</i> &lt; 0.001). None of the three groups returned significance for attending a party.</p><p>The prevalence of the Jack O′ Lantern and subsequently the pumpkin in Halloween tradition can be directly attributed to the Irish. However, the emphasis on divination rituals to find love and marriage and the rearing of clean and well-behaved children are an indisputable white, middle-class female activity. The representation of women within the promotional culture during the turn of the century warrants consideration given their role as their households' primary purchasers. The results found in this study point to several important themes which not only demonstrate the rising importance of women during the early twentieth century but also to their ability to construct and disseminate the sociocultural norms necessary to support both their and the middle-class's rising influence.</p><p>The commonplace nature of postcards often serves as a reference of a time long gone and relationships long passed. Placed in their given context, postcards have the ability to enrich history by illuminating the societies of their time and the people who lived in them. Halloween postcards from the golden age of postcards are an exceptional example of historical ephemera from the early twentieth century.</p><p>Coinciding with the rise of the middle class and mass consumption in the United States, turn of the century Halloween postcards became a way for white, middle-class women to establish and perpetuate their sociocultural values while strengthening their role in both society and the home as conspicuous consumers. The postcards in this study exemplified common, often unspoken, fears that were at the forefront of the minds of the newly minted middle-class woman. These fears included failing to find love and marriage and keeping children at a high level of society.</p><p>As cultural artifacts, golden age postcards are emblematic of the values that were introduced and perpetuated through the turn of the century promotional culture. More specifically, the postcard became a way for white, middle-class women to disseminate the idealized version of themselves and their children. The popularity of sending postcards also aided in establishing the postcard's status as a cultural artifact in our communication history.</p><p>The rise of the middle class, the mass adoption of the postcard, and the realization of Halloween as a holiday clearly indicate that golden age Halloween postcards were not only used to disseminate norms as they related to white, middle-class women but also for women to represent their hopes and fears. As Jib Fowles writes, “One finds symbolized the personal assumptions, the operating beliefs, the aspirations, and the plaintive wants of those who populate what is currently the most dominant culture on earth” (<span>1996</span>).</p>","PeriodicalId":44809,"journal":{"name":"JOURNAL OF AMERICAN CULTURE","volume":"47 3","pages":"218-230"},"PeriodicalIF":0.1000,"publicationDate":"2024-08-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/jacc.13580","citationCount":"0","resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":null,"PeriodicalName":"JOURNAL OF AMERICAN CULTURE","FirstCategoryId":"1085","ListUrlMain":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jacc.13580","RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":null,"ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":null,"EPubDate":"","PubModel":"","JCR":"0","JCRName":"HUMANITIES, MULTIDISCIPLINARY","Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0

Abstract

Collecting Halloween postcards has become increasingly popular in modern times (Hughes & Kinsella, 1998; Nicholson, 1994). A quick search of the auction website eBay at any given moment returns thousands of Halloween postcards available for auction or purchase. While the demand and value of postcards continues to wane, the demand and value of Halloween postcards from the early twentieth century is high, with some of the rarest postcards fetching hundreds of dollars.

Dating from approximately 1900 to 1920 and aided by a rise in mass production and mass distribution, the golden age of postcards coincided with the introduction of the middle class and increases in mass consumption in the United States. As the middle class grew, a renegotiation of the power structure between men and women ensued (Gifford, 2013, 2016; Simmons, 2003). Due to the changes in the power dynamic between the genders, women not only began to network outside of the home but also participated in the creation and dissemination of sociocultural norms.

As women became responsible for purchasing their households' goods and services, many agreed they were becoming the country's primary purchasers (Golia, 2016; Hirshon, 2020; Williams, 2017). This newfound responsibility helped women express themselves in ways they had been unable to do so before. Sending turn of the century postcards became a way for women to firmly establish and promote their importance while communicating how they desired to see their world.

Antithetical to the popularity of golden age postcards' is the seemingly innocuous nature of the ephemera. The mass adoption of holiday postcard exchange by middle-class women during this time justifies postcards finding their place as an extension of the turn of the century promotional culture. Extending beyond advertising and marketing, promotional culture has come to encompass all types of messaging meant to influence society including communications associated with public relations, propaganda, entertainment, and the news, to name a few (Wernick, 1988).

As cultural artifacts, golden age postcards are emblematic of the sociocultural values that were introduced and perpetuated in the early twentieth century. This study aims to illustrate that golden age Halloween postcards intended to serve as a means of empowerment for early middle-class women as has been posited by Daniel Gifford in his American Holiday Postcards, 1905–1915: Imagery and Context (2013). In addition, this study will also illustrate the unspoken fears that troubled these women. Though not limited to the following, these unspoken fears include failing to find love and marriage and failing to keep children at a high level of society.

In an effort to emulate the elite-class's tradition of exchanging Christmas and Valentine's Day greeting cards, sending postcards became popular among the middle class during the turn of the century (Shank, 2004). Inexpensive postage and the middle-class's expansion led to a meteoric rise in postcard adoption. As postcards' popularity increased, publishers expanded their offerings to include holidays beyond Christmas and Valentine's Day, including Halloween (Schmidt, 1991; Shank, 2004).

A thematic content analysis of Halloween postcards postmarked between 1901 and 1920 was utilized for this study. The goal of the analysis was to examine the prevalence of existing themes found within the images of golden age Halloween postcards (Berg, 2008). The dichotomous, categorical variables used in this study required the data be analyzed using frequency tables and cross-tabulations. These tests were carried out utilizing the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Developed by IBM, SPSS is a statistical software that is used to analyze and model datasets.

Rituals that meant to divine an individuals' prospects in life and in love played a significant role in Halloween festivities since the time of the Druids and Celts. Some of these rituals emigrated to the United States with the influx of Irish immigrants in the mid-1800s, and the more popular rituals can be found illustrated in golden age Halloween postcards. Given the focus on the importance of marriage during the early twentieth century, one of the most common divinations performed was seeing a future spouse or love's face in a mirror by candlelight at the stroke of midnight on Halloween (Figure 2).

The mirror ritual was so prevalent that it could be practiced in different settings utilizing different elements. Participants could stand, be seated, or walk up or down the stairs forward or backward. On certain occasions, the participant might eat an apple from the tip of a knife, eat an unsalted hard-boiled egg or comb their hair while looking into the mirror. In one version, the candle was replaced by moonlight. Even the mirror changed depending on need. In some instances, a full-length mirror might be used while in other a handheld mirror sufficed. The commonalities in this ritual, however, are the mirror, midnight on Halloween, light and, most importantly, the future spouse's face. This is why it comes as no surprise that the top two themes for rituals found in this study are candle (n = 130; 20.2 percent) and mirror (n = 45; 7 percent) (Table 1).

While candles were often used in Halloween rituals, it is worth noting that the prominence of candles during autumnal festivities extends beyond divinations. This accounts for why candles significantly outnumber mirrors in this study's analysis. From ancient times through the mid-1800s bonfires were lit on the hillsides in Ireland, Scotland, and Wales on October 31 to celebrate the ending summer season and to ask God for protection through the upcoming year (Kelley, 1919). As the populations grew and the customs associated with lighting bonfires began to die, individuals started to light candles in their stead to honor the waning sun and God (Figure 3).

Similar to candles, apples played a prominent role in early Halloween celebrations and are found frequently on Halloween postcards, including those in this study (n = 127; 19.7 percent). Being both plentiful and a symbol of immortality and temptation, apples are an integral part of several divination rituals. While bobbing for apples eventually became a source of merriment for children during autumnal festivities, in the early twentieth-century apple bobbing or apple ducking was a means for predicting one's future love (Figure 4). As such, apple bobbing (n = 35; 5.4 percent) was found the most frequently in the sample. Apple bobbing was followed by snap apple (n = 22; 3.4 percent), a game that preceded apple bobbing which required an individual bite into an apple that was hung from a string to predict one's future love (Figure 5). The final apple ritual was the apple peel test (n = 24; 3.7 percent). This test required an individual peel an apple in one long piece and throw the peel over their left shoulder (Figure 6). When the individual turned to observe the peel, it would spell the first initial of the individual's future spouse or love's first name or the individual's future last name.

Based on Gifford's argument regarding the role of witches as an empowerment tool for middle-class women, this study aimed to understand the frequency with which beautiful and sexy witches and witches in general could be found illustrated on early twentieth-century postcards (2013, 2016). In this study's sample, witches were identified on 32.1 percent (n = 207) of the postcards. Postcards with witches were coded based on whether the witch was ugly, old, young, beautiful or sexy. Ugly (n = 128; 19.8 percent) accounted for the most frequent attribute followed by old (n = 95; 14.7 percent). Although young (n = 89; 13.8 percent) was found almost as frequently as old, beautiful (n = 34; 5.3 percent) and sexy (n = 14; 2.2 percent) occurred the least frequently. In instances, in which the physical attributes of a witch could not be discerned, for example, the witch's face could not be seen, the witch was simply coded as a witch (Figure 2).

Given the precarious nature of the middle-class's standing in society during the turn of the century, this study aimed to understand the importance of individual expectations. Not only was the frequency of adults and children within the sample measured, but a cross-tabulation analysis was run to measure the significance among each group and their expected social outcomes. For adults, women (n = 80; 12.4 percent) could be found the most frequently in the sample followed by women and men together (n = 66; 10.2 percent). Men were found the least frequently in only 0.9 percent (n = 6) of the sample. Girls and boys (n = 85; 13.2 percent) were most often found together, followed closely by boys alone (n = 82; 12.7 percent), which were found more often than girls alone (n = 51; 7.9 percent). While a crossover of adults and children was rare, it happened twice in the sample when a woman and child were displayed together. This pairing comprised of 0.3 percent of the study sample.

A cross-tabulation was run for adults to measure the significance of each group in relation to rituals, wanting love, having love, exhibiting fear, and/or attending a party. While the measurement for men returned no statistical significance at the 0.05 level, the significance found for women at the 0.05 level included rituals (p < 0.001), wanting love (p < 0.001), and exhibiting fear (p = 0.041). Alternatively, the results for women and men together showed significance at all five levels.

A cross-tabulation analysis was also run to measure significance in relation to a child being clean, well-behaved, or rowdy; exhibiting fear; or attending a party. Each group returned significance at the 0.05 level for being clean (p < 0.001) and well-behaved (p < 0.001) while the boys and girls and boys groups each returned additional significance for being rowdy (p < 0.001) and exhibiting fear (p < 0.001). None of the three groups returned significance for attending a party.

The prevalence of the Jack O′ Lantern and subsequently the pumpkin in Halloween tradition can be directly attributed to the Irish. However, the emphasis on divination rituals to find love and marriage and the rearing of clean and well-behaved children are an indisputable white, middle-class female activity. The representation of women within the promotional culture during the turn of the century warrants consideration given their role as their households' primary purchasers. The results found in this study point to several important themes which not only demonstrate the rising importance of women during the early twentieth century but also to their ability to construct and disseminate the sociocultural norms necessary to support both their and the middle-class's rising influence.

The commonplace nature of postcards often serves as a reference of a time long gone and relationships long passed. Placed in their given context, postcards have the ability to enrich history by illuminating the societies of their time and the people who lived in them. Halloween postcards from the golden age of postcards are an exceptional example of historical ephemera from the early twentieth century.

Coinciding with the rise of the middle class and mass consumption in the United States, turn of the century Halloween postcards became a way for white, middle-class women to establish and perpetuate their sociocultural values while strengthening their role in both society and the home as conspicuous consumers. The postcards in this study exemplified common, often unspoken, fears that were at the forefront of the minds of the newly minted middle-class woman. These fears included failing to find love and marriage and keeping children at a high level of society.

As cultural artifacts, golden age postcards are emblematic of the values that were introduced and perpetuated through the turn of the century promotional culture. More specifically, the postcard became a way for white, middle-class women to disseminate the idealized version of themselves and their children. The popularity of sending postcards also aided in establishing the postcard's status as a cultural artifact in our communication history.

The rise of the middle class, the mass adoption of the postcard, and the realization of Halloween as a holiday clearly indicate that golden age Halloween postcards were not only used to disseminate norms as they related to white, middle-class women but also for women to represent their hopes and fears. As Jib Fowles writes, “One finds symbolized the personal assumptions, the operating beliefs, the aspirations, and the plaintive wants of those who populate what is currently the most dominant culture on earth” (1996).

Abstract Image

愿幸运的灯笼安详燃烧作为中产阶级宣传文化的黄金时代万圣节明信片分析
收集万圣节明信片在现代越来越流行(Hughes &amp; Kinsella, 1998; Nicholson, 1994)。在拍卖网站 eBay 上搜索一下,随时都有成千上万张万圣节明信片可供拍卖或购买。虽然明信片的需求和价值不断减弱,但 20 世纪初万圣节明信片的需求和价值却很高,一些最稀有的明信片售价高达数百美元。随着中产阶级的壮大,男女之间的权力结构也随之重新谈判(Gifford,2013,2016;Simmons,2003)。由于两性之间权力动态的变化,女性不仅开始走出家庭建立人际网络,还参与了社会文化规范的创建和传播。随着女性开始负责购买家庭商品和服务,许多人都认为她们正在成为国家的主要购买者(Golia,2016;Hirshon,2020;Williams,2017)。这种新发现的责任帮助妇女以她们以前无法做到的方式表达自己。寄送世纪之交的明信片成为女性牢固确立和提升自身重要性的一种方式,同时也传达了她们希望看到的世界。中产阶级妇女在这一时期大量使用节日明信片交换,这证明明信片作为世纪之交促销文化的延伸找到了自己的位置。除了广告和市场营销之外,促销文化还涵盖了旨在影响社会的所有类型的信息,包括与公共关系、宣传、娱乐和新闻相关的传播(Wernick,1988 年)。本研究旨在说明,正如丹尼尔-吉福德(Daniel Gifford)在《1905-1915 年美国假日明信片》(American Holiday Postcards, 1905-1915:意象与背景》(2013 年)一书中提出的观点。此外,本研究还将说明困扰这些妇女的不为人知的恐惧。为了效仿精英阶层交换圣诞贺卡和情人节贺卡的传统,寄明信片在世纪之交的中产阶级中开始流行起来(Shank,2004 年)。低廉的邮资和中产阶级的扩大导致明信片的采用率直线上升。随着明信片受欢迎程度的提高,出版商将其产品扩展到圣诞节和情人节以外的节日,包括万圣节(Schmidt, 1991; Shank, 2004)。本研究对 1901 年至 1920 年间盖有邮戳的万圣节明信片进行了主题内容分析。分析的目的是研究黄金时代万圣节明信片图像中现有主题的普遍性(Berg,2008 年)。本研究中使用的二分法分类变量要求使用频率表和交叉表对数据进行分析。这些测试使用社会科学统计软件包 (SPSS) 进行。SPSS 由 IBM 开发,是一款用于分析和模拟数据集的统计软件。自德鲁伊和凯尔特人时代起,旨在占卜个人生活和爱情前景的仪式就在万圣节庆祝活动中扮演着重要角色。其中一些仪式随着 19 世纪中叶爱尔兰移民的涌入而移居美国,在黄金时代的万圣节明信片中可以找到这些仪式的插图。鉴于二十世纪初人们对婚姻重要性的关注,最常见的占卜方式之一就是在万圣节午夜时分借着烛光从镜子中看到未来配偶或爱人的面容(图 2)。参与者可以站着、坐着,也可以向前或向后上下楼梯。在某些情况下,参与者可能会边照镜子边用刀尖吃苹果、吃无盐煮鸡蛋或梳头。在一个版本中,蜡烛被月光取代。甚至镜子也会根据需要而改变。在某些情况下,可以使用全身镜,而在另一些情况下,手持镜就足够了。
本文章由计算机程序翻译,如有差异,请以英文原文为准。
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JOURNAL OF AMERICAN CULTURE
JOURNAL OF AMERICAN CULTURE HUMANITIES, MULTIDISCIPLINARY-
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