Exploring the Antimicrobial Potential of Hallachrome, a Defensive Anthraquinone from the Marine Worm Halla parthenopeia (Polychaeta)

Abstract

Antimicrobial resistance is a critical global health issue, with rising resistance among bacteria and fungi. Marine organisms have emerged as promising, but underexplored, sources of new antimicrobial agents. Among them, marine polychaetes, such as Halla parthenopeia, which possess chemical defenses, could attract significant research interest. This study explores the antimicrobial properties of hallachrome, a unique anthraquinone found in the purple mucus of H. parthenopeia, against Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 9027), Gram-positive bacteria (Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538, Staphylococcus epidermidis ATCC 12228), and the most common human fungal pathogen Candida albicans ATCC 10231. Antibacterial susceptibility testing revealed that Gram-negative bacteria were not inhibited by hallachrome at concentrations ≤2 mM. However, Gram-positive bacteria showed significant growth inhibition at 0.12–0.25 mM, while C. albicans was inhibited at 0.06 mM. Time-kill studies demonstrated dose-dependent growth inhibition of susceptible strains by hallachrome, which exerted its effect by altering the membrane permeability of C. albicans, E. faecalis, and S. epidermidis after 6 h and S. aureus after 24 h. Additionally, hallachrome significantly reduced biofilm formation and mature biofilm in S. aureus, E. faecalis, and C. albicans. Additionally, it inhibited hyphal growth in C. albicans. These findings highlight hallachrome’s potential as a novel antimicrobial agent, deserving further exploration for clinical experimentation.