Machine Learning and Imputation to Characterize Human Norovirus Genotype Susceptibility to Sodium Hypochlorite

Abstract

Human norovirus (HuNoV) is the leading cause of foodborne illness in the developed world and a major contributor to gastroenteritis globally. Its low infectious dose and environmental persistence necessitate effective disinfection protocols. Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) bleach is a widely used disinfectant for controlling HuNoV transmission via contaminated fomites. This study aimed to evaluate the susceptibility of HuNoV genotypes (n = 11) from genogroups I, II, and IV to NaOCl in suspension. HuNoV was incubated for 1 and 5 min in diethyl pyrocarbonate (DEPC) treated water containing 50 ppm, 100 ppm, or 150 ppm NaOCl, buffered to maintain a pH between 7.0 and 7.5. Neutralization was achieved by a tenfold dilution into 100% fetal bovine serum. RNase pre-treatment followed by RT-qPCR was used to distinguish between infectious and non-infectious HuNoV. Statistical methods, including imputation, machine learning, and generalized linear models, were applied to process and analyze the data. Results showed that NaOCl reduced viral loads across all genotypes, though efficacy varied. Genotypes GI.1, GII.4 New Orleans, and GII.4 Sydney were the least susceptible, while GII.6 and GII.13 were the most susceptible. All NaOCl concentrations above 0 ppm were statistically indistinguishable, and exposure duration did not significantly affect HuNoV reduction, suggesting rapid inactivation at effective concentrations. For instance, some genotypes were completely inactivated within 1 min, rendering extended exposure unnecessary, while other genotypes maintained the initial concentration at both 1 and 5 min, indicating a need for longer contact times. These findings underscore the critical role of HuNoV genotype selection in testing disinfection protocols and optimizing NaOCl concentrations. Understanding HuNoV susceptibility to NaOCl bleach informs better disinfection strategies, aiding public health and food safety authorities in reducing HuNoV transmission and outbreaks.