Alternate disinfection approaches or raise disinfectant dosages for sewage treatment plants to address the COVID-19 pandemic? From disinfection efficiency, DBP formation, and toxicity perspectives

Abstract

During the COVID-19 pandemic, most sewage treatment plants increased disinfectant dosages to inactivate pathogenic viruses and microorganisms more effectively. However, this approach also led to the production of more disinfection by-products (DBPs). To ensure both disinfection efficiency and a reduction in DBP formation, new disinfection protocols are required. In this study, the disinfection efficiency, DBP amounts, and toxicity changes resulting from ozone (O₃), ultraviolet (UV), chlorine (Cl₂), and their combined processes were examined. The results demonstrated that the O₃/UV/Cl₂ combination achieved the highest disinfection efficiency. Chlorination produced the most DBPs, whereas UV treatment reduced the formation of trihalomethane (THM), halogenated ketones (HKs), haloacetic acids (HAA), dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN) and N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) by 45.9%, 52.6%, 82.0%, 67.95%, and 47%, respectively. O₃ also significantly reduced their production by 99.1%, 91.1%, 99.5%, 100%, and 35%. Intracellular organic matter (IOM) was identified as the primary DBP precursors, producing 2.94 times more DBPs than extracellular organic matter (EOM). The increased DBP formation during chlorination was attributed to IOM leakage and cell membrane damage, which was verified using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The toxicities of DBPs were evaluated for six disinfection methods, revealing inconsistent results. The overall toxicities were assessed using zebrafish embryo experiments. Both evaluations indicated that chlorination alone was the least favorable method. In addition, the toxicities followed a sequence: Cl₂ ≈ O₃/Cl₂ > O₃ > O₃/UV/Cl₂ > UV > UV/Cl₂. These findings can serve as a reference for sewage treatment plants in selecting appropriate disinfection methods to manage the COVID-19 epidemic from comprehensive perspective.