Sociodemographic inequalities in long-term exposure to air pollution, road traffic noise, and greenness: A population-based cohort study of women

Abstract

Background: Recent evidence suggests environmental health inequalities both within and between European countries and socially deprived groups may be more susceptible to pollution. However, evidence is still inconclusive and additional studies are warranted. This study aims to investigate sociodemographic inequalities in long-term residential exposure to air pollution, road traffic noise, and greenness, taking lifestyle and degree of urbanization into account. Methods: In total 20,407 women, born 1914–48 residing in Uppsala County, Sweden, were followed between 1997 and 2017. Time-varying sociodemographic variables were obtained from registers, and questionnaires provided lifestyle information. Generalized estimating equations were used to compute beta-coefficients (β) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) for associations between sociodemographic and lifestyle variables and spatial-temporal modeled particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), road traffic noise and greenness. All models were additionally stratified by urbanization type. Results: Urban area residency was the most important predictor of high exposure to air pollution and noise, and to low greenness. For instance, β for NO2 was −2.92 (95% CI = −3.00, −2.83) and −3.10 (95% CI = −3.18, −3.01) µg/m3 in suburban and rural areas, respectively, compared with urban areas. For greenness, the opposite held true with corresponding β of 0.059 (95% CI = 0.056, 0.062) and 0.095 (95% CI = 0.092, 0.098). Within urban areas, elderly, unmarried and well-educated women had the highest environmental burden. However, less pronounced, and even reversed associations were found in suburban and rural areas. Conclusion: This study provides evidence of a mixed pattern of environmental health inequalities across sociodemographic groups in urban areas.