{"title":"Dawn of the War on Steroids","authors":"Daniel Rosenke","doi":"10.1080/09523367.2023.2258089","DOIUrl":null,"url":null,"abstract":"AbstractIn May 1987, the U.S. Attorney’s Office filed a federal indictment naming 36 co-conspirators in the largest anabolic steroid trafficking ring in history. A two-year federal investigation revealed a $100 million black market operating in the continental United States, of which an alleged 70% was supplied by a rag-tag trio of would-be drug barons: David Jenkins, an Olympic silver medallist; Dan Duchaine, a successful author and renowned steroid authority; and William Dillon, an aeronautical engineer from the Midwest. Much like alcohol bootleggers in the Prohibition Era (1920–1933), the men capitalized on a void left in the market by increased government regulation. In the mid-1980s, a 20-year drug review campaign spearheaded by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration culminated in the removal all anabolic steroids from the pharmaceutical market; a host of widely-used substances excised in one fell swoop. Revelations of systemic drug use in the Olympic Movement begot a paradigm shift in anti-doping enforcement in the early 1980s; however, no such shifts occurred in the legislative agenda. It was only after the ring was dismantled that American policy makers began to take notice, commencing in earnest a war on steroids that continues to rage on.Keywords: Anabolic steroidsperformance-enhancing drugsdrug traffickingcriminal conspiracyWar on DrugsFDAFBIDavid JenkinsDan DuchaineUnderground Steroid Handbook Data AvailabilityThe author confirms that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article. Raw data that support the findings of this study are available upon request via the corresponding author.Disclosure StatementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).Notes1 Cerisse Anderson, ‘Powerlifter Sought for Steroid Sales’, United Press International, May 11, 1985; and John Goodbody, ‘A Sport Facing New Threat of Banishment’, The Times (London), January 31, 1990.2 Ibid; ‘A British Weightlifter Who Disappeared After Pleading Guilty’, United Press International, August 26, 1985; Fitton had been arrested two years earlier at the Atlanta Airport with 22,000 doses of anabolic steroids and human growth hormone (HGH). The following year he was convicted and received a two-year suspended sentence and five years probation for the unlawful possession of a pharmaceutical product. For further reading, see David Granger, ‘A Steroid Story: Sandler Thought Drugs were a Way to the Big Time’, The Alabama Journal, August 1, 1985.3 United States Food Drug and Cosmetic Act of 1938, Pub. L. No.75-717, 52 Stat. 1040 (1938), 49, 396.4 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019. Halpern agreed to several recorded phone interviews with the author, and claimed to have clear memories of his early years at the US Attorney’s Office. He was employed as an Assistant US Attorney in San Diego for more than thirty-five years, the first five of which were largely devoted to prosecuting steroid-related offenses.5 Ibid.6 Ibid.7 For several years the FDA had been tightening regulations on anabolic steroids, imploring pharmaceutical companies to substantiate claims of their legitimate medical uses. See for reference Anabolic Steroids Control Act of 1990: Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Crime of the Committee of the Judiciary, H.R. 4658, 101 Cong., 2nd sess., ‘Prepared Statement of Ronald G. Chesemore’, May 17, 1990, 32–33; while anabolic steroids were regulated by the FDA the United States Food Drug and Cosmetic Act of 1938, at the time the drugs were not scheduled. See for reference The Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970, Pub. L. No. 91–513, 84 Stat. (1970), article 812, A-C.8 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.9 Granger, ‘A Steroid Story’, The Alabama Journal, August 1, 1985; and Anderson, ‘Powerlifter Sought’, United Press International, May 11, 1985.10 International Powerlifting Federation, ‘World Women’s Powerlifting Championships’, accessed September 16, 2019, https://www.powerlifting.sport/fileadmin/ipf/data/results/worlds/worldpowerlifting.info/worldpowerlifting.info/IPF_Powerlifting_Senior_Women_1980-2006.htm; and Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.11 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019; and David Granger and Alan Schmodtke, ‘Steroid Dealer Linked to AU’, The Alabama Journal, July 30, 1985.12 Shaun Assael, Steroid Nation: Juiced Home-Run Totals, Anti-Aging Miracles, and a Hercules in Every High School: The Secret History of America’s True Drug Addiction (New York, NY: ESPN Books, 2007), 13.13 ‘The Strength Coach at the University of California’, The Associated Press, December 18, 1985.14 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.15 Terry Todd, ‘Anabolic Steroids: The Gremlins of Sport’, Journal of Sport History 7, no. 1 (1987): 104; Todd cites an interview with Georgia District Attorney Clifford A. Stitcher as his source on Fitton’s jail stint.16 ‘A British Weightlifter Who Disappeared’, United Press International, August 26, 1985.17 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.18 Ibid.; and Peter Alfano and Michael Janofsky, ‘Drugs that may Build Bulk Pull Weight on Black Market’, The New York Times, November 18, 1988.19 William Oscar Johnson, ‘Steroids: A Problem of Huge Dimensions’, Sports Illustrated, May 13, 1985.20 Ivor Davis, ‘Operation Overlord of the Drug Ring: How a Tenacious Attorney Named ‘Bulldog’ Halpern Tracked Down Mr. X, alias David Jenkins, the British Olympic Sprinter Turned Drug Runner, Now Awaiting Sentence in the US’, The Times (London), February 11, 1988; and John Eisendrath, ‘Confessions of a Steroid Smuggler: When the Quest for Big Muscles Turns into a Passion for Big Money’, Los Angeles Times Magazine, April 24, 1988.21 United States of America v. David Jenkins, Juan Javier Macklis, Daniel Duchaine, William P. Dillon, James M. Insko, Robert Wantz, Jr., David Grigus, Leonard T. Swirda, Toivol Mansen, Michael MacDonald, Michael Marzella, Lon Zeigler, Jeffrey Golini, Normand Bergland, John Sleconich, Mark Depew, Steven Henneberry, Patrick Jacobs, Jeffrey Jarrison, Thomas Binns, Gerald Jones, Steven Marx, Steven Hein, Dennis J. Motte, Garry de Paepe, Vito Elefante, Gil R. Thompson, Rafael Lepe-Duenas, Samuel Martinez-Moreno, Jose Zapata, Marco Macklis, Culberto Lopez, Fito Alvarez, United Pharmaceuticals, Laboratorios Milano de Mexico, United States District Court Southern District of California, Criminal Case no. 87-0491-JLI, May 20, 1987; and Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019; the author obtained a copy of the federal indictment from Halpern, the lead prosecutor for each of the thirty-six co-defendants. For details on David Jenkins and Dan Duchaine, see Alfano and Janofsky, ‘Weight on Black Market’, The New York Times, November 18, 1988; Richard Moore, ‘From Gold to Silver to Drugs to Jail David Jenkins Never Ran from Fate’, The Scotsman, July 9, 2012; and Alessandro Donati, ‘World Traffic in Doping Substances’, 30–1, https://www.wada.ama.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/WADA_Donati_Report_On_Trafficking_2007.pdf (accessed August 10, 2019).22 Michelle Kaufman, ‘Hurricanes’ Strength Coach Is Among 34 Indicted Nationwide for Smuggling Steroids’, The Tampa Bay Times, May 22, 1987; and Davis, ‘Operation Overlord’, The Times (London), February 11, 1988.23 Congressional hearings discussing proposed regulations on anabolic steroids make specific mention of the smuggling ring led by Jenkins. See for reference The Anabolic Steroid Restriction Act of 1989: Hearings Before the House Committee on the Judiciary, 101st Cong. (1989), 8; and The Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 1990, 40–3.24 The Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988, H.R. 5210, 21 USC 333a., 100th Cong. (1988), sec. 2402, 4230.25 The Anabolic Steroids Control Act of 1990, H.R. 4658, 101 Cong. (1990), sec. 2(A-C), 3(B); and The Controlled Substance Act of 1970, article 812 (B-2), 523. Drugs listed under Schedule III of the Act must have a moderate potential for abuse, a currently accepted medical application, and addictive properties, both physical and psychological. For further reading see Richard Abood, Pharmacy Practice and the Law, Fourth Edition (Sudbury, MN: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 2005), 147–54.26 Alfano and Janofsky, ‘Weight on Black Market’, The New York Times, November 18, 1988; and Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.27 Donati, ‘World Trafficking on Doping Substances’, 30.28 A search of the Lexis Nexis database and other news archives found hundreds of articles covering the case. Most were written between the conspirators’ indictments and sentencing, and can be found throughout this chapter. For further reading see Llewellyn with Tober, Underground Anabolics, 14–15; Rob Beamish, Steroids: A New Look at Performance Enhancing Drugs (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO LLC, 2011), 136; and David E. Newton, Steroids and Doping in Sports: A Reference Handbook (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO LLC, 2018), 92.29 Newton, Steroids and Doping in Sports, 92; and Richard I.G. Holt, Ioulietta Erotokritou-Mulligan, and Peter H. Sönksen, ‘The History of Doping and Growth Hormone Abuse in Sport’, Growth Hormone and IGF Research 19 (2009): 322.30 United States Food Drug and Cosmetic Act, 49, 396.31 Ibid., 42–3, 46, 49.32 Todd, ‘Gremlins of Sport’, 94; John Fair, ‘Isometrics or Steroids: Exploring New Frontiers of Strength in the Early 1960s’, Journal of Sport History 20 (1993): 1–24, the author notes Ciba Pharmaceuticals patented the anabolic steroid methandrostenolone in around 1955, and in 1958 released it under the trade name Dianabol. In fact, while it is generally accepted among scholars that Dianabol was the first anabolic steroid marketed it was not the first anabolic steroid synthesized from testosterone. In William Llewellyn, Anabolics (Jupiter, FL: Molecular Nutrition, 2011), 14, the author correctly notes that Boldenone Undecylenate was the first anabolic steroid, first patented by Ciba pharmaceuticals in 1949. Incidentally, Norethandrolone was the first anabolic steroid approved for medical use, in 1956, under the brand name Nilevar. For further reading see Francois Chast, ‘A History of Drug Discovery: From First Steps of Chemistry to Achievements in Molecular Pharmacology’, in The Practice of Medicinal Chemistry, Third Edition, ed. Patricia Wermuth (London: Academic Press, 2008), 34.33 Edward B. Williams, ‘Exemption from the Requirement of Adequate Directions for Use in the Labeling of Drugs’, Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Law Quarterly 2 (1947): 155; and The United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Reports Vol. 71, No. 11 (Washington, DC: 1956), 1155.34 Durham-Humphrey Amendments of 1951, Pub. L. No. 82-215, §1, 65 Stat. 648, 648 (1951); and United States Food and Drug Administration, ‘FDA’s Evolving Regulatory Powers Part III: Drugs and Foods Under the 1938 Act and its Amendments’, https://www.fda.gov/about-fda/fdas-evolving-regulatory-powers/part-iii-drugs-and-foods-under-1938-act-and-its-amendments (accessed October 10, 2019).35 See for reference United States Food and Drug Administration, Approved Prescription Drug Products with Therapeutic Equivalent Evaluations 3rd Edition (Washington, DC: The United States Department of Health and Human Services, 1982), A-5.36 United States General Services Administration, ‘Drugs for Human Use: Certain Anabolic Steroids; Drug Efficacy Study Implementation’, Federal Register 35, no. 122 (1970): 10328; and Jean Forcroy, ‘Designer Steroids: Past, Present, and Future’, Current Opinion on Endocrinology and Diabetes 13 (2006): 307.37 Peter N. Horvath, ‘The DESI Hit List: The Story and Reflections’, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 5, no. 3 (1981): 363; and The US Food and Drug Administration, ‘FDA’s Evolving Regulatory Powers Part III: Drugs and Foods Under the 1938 Act and Its Amendments’, https://www.fda.gov/about-fda/fdas-evolving-regulatory-powers/part-iii-drugs-and-foods-under-1938-act-and-its-amendments (accessed August 10, 2019).38 Leslie Pray and Sally Robinson, Challenges for the FDA: The Future of Drug Safety, Workshop Summary (Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2007), 14.39 Horvath, ‘The DESI Hit List’, 363–4; and National Academy of Sciences, ‘The Drug Efficacy Study of the National Research Council’s Division of Medical Sciences, 1966-1969’, http://www.nasonline.org/about-nas/history/archives/collections/des-1966-1969-1.html#series_3 (accessed August 4, 2019).40 Ibid.41 United States General Services Administration, ‘Certain Anabolic Steroids, Drug Efficacy Study Implementation’, 10328.42 Ibid.43 Ibid.44 Nicholas Wade, ‘Anabolic Steroids: Doctor’s Denounce Them, but Athletes Aren’t Listening’, Science, New Series 176, no. 4042 (1977): 1401.45 United States Congress, ‘The Drug Problem: Message from the President’, 91st Cong., 1st sess., Congressional Record 115, pt. 14 (July 14, 1984): 19353–4.46 Pennsylvania Crime Mobilization Conference, ‘Address by the Honorable John N. Mitchell, Attorney General of the United States’, Camp Hill, Pennsylvania, December 3, 1969.47 The Controlled Substances Act of 1970, Pub. L. No. 91–513, 84 Stat. (1970), article 812 (A-C); the Act was passed as Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse and Prevention Control Act of 1970. Viewed as the incipient action in Nixon’s War on Drugs, the Act created a taxonomical system for drugs listed in the United States Pharmacopeia based on dependence-forming properties, potential for abuse, and medical applications. Drugs were evaluated then classified in one of five schedules, with Schedule I comprising substances with high abuse-potential and little or no medical use. Correspondingly, drugs under Schedule V were deemed to have legitimate medical uses and little or no potential for abuse or dependency. For a more comprehensive summary of this legislation, see Robert C. Bonner, and Gene R. Haislip, A Security Outline of the Controlled Substances Act of 1970 (Washington, DC: The United States Drug Enforcement Administration, 1991).48 Abood, Pharmacy Practice and the Law, 184.49 In the original legislation and subsequent amendments over the following two decades, anabolic steroids were not listed under any of the five schedules. It was not until 1990 that the drugs were codified as Schedule III substances. See for reference The Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 1990, H.R. 4658, 101 Cong. (1990), sec. 2(A-C), 3(B).50 Nixon used this phrasing in a presidential address in January 1972. See for reference Thomas J. Johnson, Wayne Wanta, Timothy Boudreau, Janet Blank-Libra, Killian Schaffer, and Sally Turner, ‘Influence Dealers: A Path Analysis Model of Agenda Building during Richard Nixon's War on Drugs’, Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73, no. 1 (1996): 184.51 Bil Gilbert, ‘Drug Use and Abuse: The Nature and Extent of the Problem’, Sports Illustrated, June 23, 1969.52 Ibid.53 Ibid.54 Drug Abuse in Athletics: Assembly Interim Subcommittee on Drug Abuse and Alcoholism, ‘Testimony of H. Kay Dooley, October 20, 1970, 9.55 Ibid., 1056 Proper and Improper Use of Drugs by Athletes: Hearings Before the Subcommittee to Investigate Juvenile Delinquency, 93 Cong., 1st sess., June 18, July 12–13, 1973, 2.57 Ibid., 163, 351, 353, 394, 395, 436, 461, 666, 798, 816.58 Proper and Improper Use of Drugs, 2.59 Ibid., 290.60 Ibid., 293.61 Ann Japenga, ‘Guidebook to Steroid Use Is Called Deceptive and Dangerous’, The Los Angeles Times, January 31, 1984.62 Randy Harvey, ‘Canadian Inquiry Told of Bizarre Medical Practices’, The Los Angeles Times, June 20, 1989.63 ‘The Godfather’, Sports Illustrated, March 11, 2008.64 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019; and Todd, ‘Gremlins of Sport’, 104.65 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.66 United States General Services Administration, ‘Certain Anabolic Steroids; Drug Efficacy Study Implementation; Revocation of Exemption; Opportunity for Hearing’, Federal Register 48, no. 12 (January 18, 1983): 2208.67 United States General Services Administration, ‘Certain Anabolic Steroids; Drug Efficacy Study Implementation; Revocation of Exemption; Opportunity for Hearing’, Federal Register 48, no. 94 (May 13, 1983): 21658.68 Llewellyn with Tober, Underground Anabolics, 14; others made similar contentions about this being a turning point of sorts. See for reference Eisendrath, ‘Confessions of a Steroid Smuggler’, 11; for the FDA’s official ruling on the matter see United States General Services Administration, ‘Revocation of Exemption; Opportunity for Hearing’, Federal Register 50, no. 240 (December 13, 1985): 50964; and Daniel Duchaine, Underground Steroid Handbook II: Incorporating Material from the Original Underground Steroid Handbook, Ultimate Muscle Mass, and the USH Updates #1-10 (Venice, CA: HLR Technical Books, 1989), 32.69 Alfano and Janofsky, ‘Weight on Black Market’, The New York Times, November 18, 1988.70 Duchaine, Underground Steroid Handbook II, 36.71 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.72 The Anabolic Steroids Control Act of 1990, 29; and American Medical Association, Council on Scientific Affairs, ‘Drug Misuse: Anabolic Steroids and Human Growth Hormone’, Resolution 57, A-86 (1986), 30.73 Ibid.74 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.75 Assael, Steroid Nation, 13.76 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.77 Assael, Steroid Nation, 12–13; and Gary R. Blockus, ‘Powerlifting Champ to Talk About the Dangers of Steroids’, The Morning Call, March 2, 1989.78 Alan L. Hoeting in interview with Robert A. Tucker, The History of the US Food and Drug Administration (Minneapolis, MN: FDA History Office, 1999), 22–5. The reasoning here is three-fold: for starters, the document’s appendix dates the FDA’s first criminal warrant-search and seizure September 30, 1975; second, in the interview, Hoeting speaks of Degan with high praise for having ‘managed a complex and ‘precedent setting’ investigation’; and third, to the previous point, and also in the document’s appendix, Degan is listed as the recipient of the FDA Award of Merit in 1984 for ‘a brilliant performance in the preparation and management of a complex regulatory case’. Moreover, the document referenced above includes a section titled ‘Significant Historical.79 Assael, Steroid Nation, 12; and ‘The Godfather’, Sports Illustrated, March 11, 2008.80 Assael, Steroid Nation, 13; and Doug Fisher, ‘Former World Weight Lifting Champion Larry Pacifico…’, The Associated Press, June 18, 1987. Degan claimed in an interview for Steroid Nation that Pacifico ‘said just enough to make [him] realize that a silent network of dealers existed’ in the United States, many of them ‘using bodybuilding shows as a base of operations’.81 Robert A. Tucker, The History of the US Food and Drug Administration, appendix 13.82 Assael, Steroid Nation, 14; the author notes that Degan had tried and failed at ‘convincing law enforcement to take the [steroid] problem seriously’.83 Ibid., 13; FBI Director William H. Webster in memorandum to Special Agent in Charge, Los Angeles, ‘Re. Daniel Richard Duchaine’, September 9, 1985; and Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019; and Alan L. Hoeting interview in Robert A. Tucker, The History of the US Food and Drug Administration, 24; there is conflicting evidence as to when Degan contacted the DOJ. In Steroid Nation, Assael claims he did so before raiding Pacifico’s offices, implying that the task force had already been green lit before authorities were aware of a nationwide network, the impetus for creating the task force in the first place. This is in direct contradiction to Halpern’s comments in a 2019 interview, and those of former FDA Director Alan L. Hoeting in 1999.84 Government of Canada, The Commission of Inquiry into the Use of Banned Drugs and Practices Intended to Increase Athletic Performance, commissioned by the Honorable Charles Dubin, November 16, 1988–September 19, 1989 (Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing Center, 1990), 366; and Assael, Steroid Nation, 13.85 Federal Bureau of Investigation, ‘Daniel Richard Duchaine’, in memorandum to Food and Drug Administration and United States Department of Justice, October 10, 1985; and William H. Webster in memorandum to SAC, Los Angeles, September 9, 1985; for references to Fitton’s arrest, see note 16.86 Max Cobb interviewed in Michael Powell, ‘Lest We Forget, the US, Too, Spent Time in the Doping Wilderness’, The New York Times, August 4, 2016, US Biathlon Chief Max Cobb uses the phrase ‘the wild west’ to describe the relative lack of steroid enforcement in the 1980s. See also James Montague, ‘Hero or Villain? Ben Johnson and the Dirtiest Race in History’, CNN Sports, July 23, 2012.87 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.88 Peter Alfano and Michael Janofsky, ‘A Guru Who Spread the Gospel of Steroids’, The New York Times, November 18, 1988.89 Ibid., and Assael, Steroid Nation, 2.90 Japenga, ‘Guidebook to Steroid Use’, The Los Angeles Times, January 31, 1984; and Bruce Kneller in interview with author, August 3, 2019; Kneller served as Duchaine’s research assistant for four years from the late-1980s to the early-1990s. By his account they developed a close friendship over the years and collaborated on several projects for Duchaine’s supplement company.91 Assael, Steroid Nation, 5; Duchaine also makes similar comments in later interviews. For instance, in Alfano and Janofsky, ‘Gospel of Steroids’, The New York Times, November 18, 1988, he asserts anabolic steroids can be safe if used in moderation and adds that the USHB was his attempt to dispel popular myths about the drugs, most of which originated in the medical community.92 Assael, Steroid Nation, 5–7.93 Ibid., 5; incidentally, Duchaine and Zumpano released a longer, edited version of USH sometime in 1983.94 Ibid., 7.95 Alfano and Janofsky, ‘Gospel of Steroids’, The New York Times, November 18, 1988; Japenga, ‘Guidebook to Steroid Use’, The Los Angeles Times, January 31, 1984; and Assael, Steroid Nation, 12.96 Japenga, ‘Guidebook to Steroid Use’, The Los Angeles Times, January 31, 1984.97 Ibid; and Newton, Steroids and Doping in Sports, 96.98 Todd, ‘Gremlins of Sport’, 104; for Ziegler as the ‘father of Dianabol’, see for example John D. Fair, Mr. America: The Tragic History of a Bodybuilding Icon (Austin: The University of Texas Press, 2015), 152; and Robert Dvorchak, ‘Never Enough/Steroids in Sports: Experiment Turns Epidemic’, Post-Gazette (Pittsburgh), October 1, 2005.99 Duchaine, Underground Steroid Handbook, 6–7; the phrase ‘very popular with athletes’, appears in a passage describing the Anavar, an anabolic steroid reputed for mild side-effects and lean muscle gains.100 Todd, ‘Gremlins of Sport’, 104; and FBI Special Agent in Affidavit for Search Warrant, United States District Court, Central District of California, case no. 86-1114m, August 1986, 4; the agent’s name was redacted for security purposes.101 Ibid.102 Ibid.103 Ibid.104 Ibid.; the author was unable to discern or find evidence of what the acronym CKR stood for.105 Ibid.106 It is not clear exactly when the grand jury was assembled, but the preceding correspondence indicates it was no later than November 12, 1985. Presumably this took place sometime between October 10, and the first two weeks of November. In Richard Bretzing, airtel correspondence to FBI Director William H. Webster, November 12, 1985, 3, Bretzing notes the FBI’s Los Angeles Division was awaiting grand jury subpoenas for mail surveillance on Duchaine and six other anabolic steroid dealers on November 12, indicating that the grand jury had already been investigating for an indeterminate timeframe. At the time the grand jury had already been given several bottles of the anabolic steroids Degan through the JZFC. Further evidence of this appears in Richard T. Bretzing in letter to United States Attorney Robert C. Bonner, January 28, 1986.107 In Eisendrath, ‘Confessions of a Steroid Smuggler’, 16, the author finds that Dillon, who is the principal source of information in the piece, was under the impression he was meeting with Duchaine and Jenkins to discuss a legitimate supplement business. Further, according to several sources, Jenkins and Duchaine had discussed anabolic steroids several weeks before the lunch meeting in January 1986. For further reading see Richard Moore, ‘From Gold and Silver to Drugs and Jail David Jenkins Never Ran from Fate’, The Scotsman, July 9, 2012.108 Moore, ‘From Gold and Silver’, The Scotsman, July 9, 2012; for Jenkins’ nicknames, see Assael, Steroid Nation, 14.109 European Athletics, ‘European Athletics Championships, Helsinki 1971’, https://www.european-athletics.org/competitions/european-athleticschampionships/history/year=1971/results/index.html (accessed June 8, 2019), and Davis, ‘Operation Overlord’, The Times, February 11, 1988.110 Moore, ‘From Gold to Silver’, The Scotsman, July 9, 2012.111 The side-effects associated with Dianabol are said to be more numerous and severe than most anabolic steroids. Users have reported severe water retention, muscle tightness, high blood pressure, and psychological malaise. See for reference Oliver Bateman and Danijel Zezelj, ‘Steroid Solidarity: The Culture of Juicing at the Mr. Olympia Competition’, Virginia Quarterly Review 93, no. 3 (2017), 67; and Lisa Anne Richardson, ‘I Need You to Look at Me: An Ethnographic Study of a Subculture of Serious Gym Members’ (PhD diss., San Jose State University, 1991), 26.112 Richard Moore, The Dirtiest Race in History: Ben Johnson, Carl Lewis, and the 1988 Olympic 100m Final (London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2012), 73.113 World Athletics, ‘Athlete Profiles – David Jenkins’, https://www.iaaf.org/athletes/great-britain-ni/david-jenkins-9770 (accessed August 4, 2019); the author contacted David Jenkins for the purpose of an interview for this chapter. Initially Jenkins seemed eager to take part, but several days later denied the request. At minimum this would have provided accurate details on the date Jenkins moved to California. Altogether, sources gathered for this chapter indicate that after retiring from track and field in the summer of 1982 he and his wife moved to Southern California. Given that Jenkins was already operating a ‘successful’ supplement business by mid-to-late 1985, it stands to reason that he emigrated soon after retiring. For comments on Jenkins’ supplement business see Ivor Davis, ‘Athletics: Jenkins on Drug Charges’, The Times (London), May 22, 1987.114 See for example Daniel Duchaine, ‘Newest Developments in Precontest Carbing Up’, Flex (December 1984): 46; and Daniel Duchaine, ‘Free-Form Amino Acids: The Protein Source of the 1980s’, Flex (January 1984): 49; the author accessed past issues of Flex magazine in the H.J. Lutcher Stark Center Sport History Archive at the University of Texas at Austin.115 Moore, ‘From Gold to Silver’, The Scotsman, July 9, 2012.116 Ibid.; in support of Jenkins’ claim, on February 2, 1986 Duchaine distributed a letter to John Ziegler Fan Club customers warning them that the FBI had raided ‘major suppliers on the east and west coast’. While he is not necessarily referring to the San Francisco source referenced by Jenkins, the timelines match. By Jenkins’ account, the supplier was shut down in mid-to-late 1985, about a month before Duchaine issued this warning. The letter is quoted in Todd, ‘Gremlins of Sport’, 104.117 At this point in time Duchaine had at least three different sources for anabolic steroids; in Philadelphia, San Francisco, and Stuttgart. The author pieced together this information through FBI correspondence, Jenkins’ interview, and Eisendrath, ‘Confessions of a Steroid Smuggler’, 12, 15–16.118 Moore, ‘From Gold to Silver’, The Scotsman, July 9, 2012.119 The author was unable to verify this with official competition results; however, this is mentioned in several sources. See for example Newton, Steroids and Doping in Sports, 92; and Eisendrath, ‘Confessions of a Steroid Smuggler’, 12.120 United States of America v. David Jenkins et al., 38; and Alfano and Janofsky, ‘Weight on Black Market’, The New York Times, November 18, 1988.121 United States General Services Administration, ‘Certain Anabolic Steroids’, 50964; and Eisendrath, ‘Confessions of a Steroid Smuggler’, 12; for commentary on the popularity of Dianabol, see for reference Don. H. Catlin, Kenneth Fitch, and Arne Ljungqvist, ‘Medicine and Science in the Fight Against Doping in Sport’, Journal of Internal Medicine 264, no. 2 (2008): 104; and Wade, ‘Doctor’s Denounce Them’, 1400.122 Dillon provided these details in Eisendrath, ‘Confessions of a Steroid Smuggler’, 12; and Assael, Steroid Nation, 15, revealing in both interviews that it was Jenkins’ idea to center the business around Dianabol.123 Ibid.124 Fernando Romero, ‘Drug Lords Feel Mexico Muscle; Tijuana Steroids Lab Shut, 12 Held in Crackdown’, The San Diego Union-Tribune, April 11, 1989; and Assael, Steroid Nation, 16.125 Assael, Steroid Nation, 16.126 On the Hotel Fiesta Americana – the Grand Hotel Tijuana as of 1991 – see for reference Jorge Meraz, ‘Opinion: Growing Up in Tijuana, I Saw How We Shared More Than Just a Border with the US’, The San Diego Union-Tribune, July 10, 2022; and Rik Espinosa, Espinosa’s Guide to Baja: The Indispensable Companion of any Gringo Visiting Tijuana, Rosarito, Enesenada, and Tecate (Austin, TX: The University of Texas Press, 1989), 86–7; on the Tijuana Country Club in years past, see Thurber Dennis Proffitt, Tijuana: The History of a Mexican Metropolis (San Diego, CA: San Diego State University Press, 1994), 196–7; and ‘Furgol, Souchak Head Field in Tijuana Open’, Rome News-Tribune, January 17, 1958.127 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019; for details on Jenkins locating a source fo","PeriodicalId":47491,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of the History of Sport","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.8000,"publicationDate":"2023-09-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":"0","resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":null,"PeriodicalName":"International Journal of the History of Sport","FirstCategoryId":"1085","ListUrlMain":"https://doi.org/10.1080/09523367.2023.2258089","RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":null,"EPubDate":"","PubModel":"","JCR":"Q1","JCRName":"HISTORY","Score":null,"Total":0}
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Abstract
AbstractIn May 1987, the U.S. Attorney’s Office filed a federal indictment naming 36 co-conspirators in the largest anabolic steroid trafficking ring in history. A two-year federal investigation revealed a $100 million black market operating in the continental United States, of which an alleged 70% was supplied by a rag-tag trio of would-be drug barons: David Jenkins, an Olympic silver medallist; Dan Duchaine, a successful author and renowned steroid authority; and William Dillon, an aeronautical engineer from the Midwest. Much like alcohol bootleggers in the Prohibition Era (1920–1933), the men capitalized on a void left in the market by increased government regulation. In the mid-1980s, a 20-year drug review campaign spearheaded by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration culminated in the removal all anabolic steroids from the pharmaceutical market; a host of widely-used substances excised in one fell swoop. Revelations of systemic drug use in the Olympic Movement begot a paradigm shift in anti-doping enforcement in the early 1980s; however, no such shifts occurred in the legislative agenda. It was only after the ring was dismantled that American policy makers began to take notice, commencing in earnest a war on steroids that continues to rage on.Keywords: Anabolic steroidsperformance-enhancing drugsdrug traffickingcriminal conspiracyWar on DrugsFDAFBIDavid JenkinsDan DuchaineUnderground Steroid Handbook Data AvailabilityThe author confirms that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article. Raw data that support the findings of this study are available upon request via the corresponding author.Disclosure StatementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).Notes1 Cerisse Anderson, ‘Powerlifter Sought for Steroid Sales’, United Press International, May 11, 1985; and John Goodbody, ‘A Sport Facing New Threat of Banishment’, The Times (London), January 31, 1990.2 Ibid; ‘A British Weightlifter Who Disappeared After Pleading Guilty’, United Press International, August 26, 1985; Fitton had been arrested two years earlier at the Atlanta Airport with 22,000 doses of anabolic steroids and human growth hormone (HGH). The following year he was convicted and received a two-year suspended sentence and five years probation for the unlawful possession of a pharmaceutical product. For further reading, see David Granger, ‘A Steroid Story: Sandler Thought Drugs were a Way to the Big Time’, The Alabama Journal, August 1, 1985.3 United States Food Drug and Cosmetic Act of 1938, Pub. L. No.75-717, 52 Stat. 1040 (1938), 49, 396.4 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019. Halpern agreed to several recorded phone interviews with the author, and claimed to have clear memories of his early years at the US Attorney’s Office. He was employed as an Assistant US Attorney in San Diego for more than thirty-five years, the first five of which were largely devoted to prosecuting steroid-related offenses.5 Ibid.6 Ibid.7 For several years the FDA had been tightening regulations on anabolic steroids, imploring pharmaceutical companies to substantiate claims of their legitimate medical uses. See for reference Anabolic Steroids Control Act of 1990: Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Crime of the Committee of the Judiciary, H.R. 4658, 101 Cong., 2nd sess., ‘Prepared Statement of Ronald G. Chesemore’, May 17, 1990, 32–33; while anabolic steroids were regulated by the FDA the United States Food Drug and Cosmetic Act of 1938, at the time the drugs were not scheduled. See for reference The Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970, Pub. L. No. 91–513, 84 Stat. (1970), article 812, A-C.8 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.9 Granger, ‘A Steroid Story’, The Alabama Journal, August 1, 1985; and Anderson, ‘Powerlifter Sought’, United Press International, May 11, 1985.10 International Powerlifting Federation, ‘World Women’s Powerlifting Championships’, accessed September 16, 2019, https://www.powerlifting.sport/fileadmin/ipf/data/results/worlds/worldpowerlifting.info/worldpowerlifting.info/IPF_Powerlifting_Senior_Women_1980-2006.htm; and Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.11 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019; and David Granger and Alan Schmodtke, ‘Steroid Dealer Linked to AU’, The Alabama Journal, July 30, 1985.12 Shaun Assael, Steroid Nation: Juiced Home-Run Totals, Anti-Aging Miracles, and a Hercules in Every High School: The Secret History of America’s True Drug Addiction (New York, NY: ESPN Books, 2007), 13.13 ‘The Strength Coach at the University of California’, The Associated Press, December 18, 1985.14 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.15 Terry Todd, ‘Anabolic Steroids: The Gremlins of Sport’, Journal of Sport History 7, no. 1 (1987): 104; Todd cites an interview with Georgia District Attorney Clifford A. Stitcher as his source on Fitton’s jail stint.16 ‘A British Weightlifter Who Disappeared’, United Press International, August 26, 1985.17 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.18 Ibid.; and Peter Alfano and Michael Janofsky, ‘Drugs that may Build Bulk Pull Weight on Black Market’, The New York Times, November 18, 1988.19 William Oscar Johnson, ‘Steroids: A Problem of Huge Dimensions’, Sports Illustrated, May 13, 1985.20 Ivor Davis, ‘Operation Overlord of the Drug Ring: How a Tenacious Attorney Named ‘Bulldog’ Halpern Tracked Down Mr. X, alias David Jenkins, the British Olympic Sprinter Turned Drug Runner, Now Awaiting Sentence in the US’, The Times (London), February 11, 1988; and John Eisendrath, ‘Confessions of a Steroid Smuggler: When the Quest for Big Muscles Turns into a Passion for Big Money’, Los Angeles Times Magazine, April 24, 1988.21 United States of America v. David Jenkins, Juan Javier Macklis, Daniel Duchaine, William P. Dillon, James M. Insko, Robert Wantz, Jr., David Grigus, Leonard T. Swirda, Toivol Mansen, Michael MacDonald, Michael Marzella, Lon Zeigler, Jeffrey Golini, Normand Bergland, John Sleconich, Mark Depew, Steven Henneberry, Patrick Jacobs, Jeffrey Jarrison, Thomas Binns, Gerald Jones, Steven Marx, Steven Hein, Dennis J. Motte, Garry de Paepe, Vito Elefante, Gil R. Thompson, Rafael Lepe-Duenas, Samuel Martinez-Moreno, Jose Zapata, Marco Macklis, Culberto Lopez, Fito Alvarez, United Pharmaceuticals, Laboratorios Milano de Mexico, United States District Court Southern District of California, Criminal Case no. 87-0491-JLI, May 20, 1987; and Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019; the author obtained a copy of the federal indictment from Halpern, the lead prosecutor for each of the thirty-six co-defendants. For details on David Jenkins and Dan Duchaine, see Alfano and Janofsky, ‘Weight on Black Market’, The New York Times, November 18, 1988; Richard Moore, ‘From Gold to Silver to Drugs to Jail David Jenkins Never Ran from Fate’, The Scotsman, July 9, 2012; and Alessandro Donati, ‘World Traffic in Doping Substances’, 30–1, https://www.wada.ama.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/WADA_Donati_Report_On_Trafficking_2007.pdf (accessed August 10, 2019).22 Michelle Kaufman, ‘Hurricanes’ Strength Coach Is Among 34 Indicted Nationwide for Smuggling Steroids’, The Tampa Bay Times, May 22, 1987; and Davis, ‘Operation Overlord’, The Times (London), February 11, 1988.23 Congressional hearings discussing proposed regulations on anabolic steroids make specific mention of the smuggling ring led by Jenkins. See for reference The Anabolic Steroid Restriction Act of 1989: Hearings Before the House Committee on the Judiciary, 101st Cong. (1989), 8; and The Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 1990, 40–3.24 The Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988, H.R. 5210, 21 USC 333a., 100th Cong. (1988), sec. 2402, 4230.25 The Anabolic Steroids Control Act of 1990, H.R. 4658, 101 Cong. (1990), sec. 2(A-C), 3(B); and The Controlled Substance Act of 1970, article 812 (B-2), 523. Drugs listed under Schedule III of the Act must have a moderate potential for abuse, a currently accepted medical application, and addictive properties, both physical and psychological. For further reading see Richard Abood, Pharmacy Practice and the Law, Fourth Edition (Sudbury, MN: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 2005), 147–54.26 Alfano and Janofsky, ‘Weight on Black Market’, The New York Times, November 18, 1988; and Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.27 Donati, ‘World Trafficking on Doping Substances’, 30.28 A search of the Lexis Nexis database and other news archives found hundreds of articles covering the case. Most were written between the conspirators’ indictments and sentencing, and can be found throughout this chapter. For further reading see Llewellyn with Tober, Underground Anabolics, 14–15; Rob Beamish, Steroids: A New Look at Performance Enhancing Drugs (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO LLC, 2011), 136; and David E. Newton, Steroids and Doping in Sports: A Reference Handbook (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO LLC, 2018), 92.29 Newton, Steroids and Doping in Sports, 92; and Richard I.G. Holt, Ioulietta Erotokritou-Mulligan, and Peter H. Sönksen, ‘The History of Doping and Growth Hormone Abuse in Sport’, Growth Hormone and IGF Research 19 (2009): 322.30 United States Food Drug and Cosmetic Act, 49, 396.31 Ibid., 42–3, 46, 49.32 Todd, ‘Gremlins of Sport’, 94; John Fair, ‘Isometrics or Steroids: Exploring New Frontiers of Strength in the Early 1960s’, Journal of Sport History 20 (1993): 1–24, the author notes Ciba Pharmaceuticals patented the anabolic steroid methandrostenolone in around 1955, and in 1958 released it under the trade name Dianabol. In fact, while it is generally accepted among scholars that Dianabol was the first anabolic steroid marketed it was not the first anabolic steroid synthesized from testosterone. In William Llewellyn, Anabolics (Jupiter, FL: Molecular Nutrition, 2011), 14, the author correctly notes that Boldenone Undecylenate was the first anabolic steroid, first patented by Ciba pharmaceuticals in 1949. Incidentally, Norethandrolone was the first anabolic steroid approved for medical use, in 1956, under the brand name Nilevar. For further reading see Francois Chast, ‘A History of Drug Discovery: From First Steps of Chemistry to Achievements in Molecular Pharmacology’, in The Practice of Medicinal Chemistry, Third Edition, ed. Patricia Wermuth (London: Academic Press, 2008), 34.33 Edward B. Williams, ‘Exemption from the Requirement of Adequate Directions for Use in the Labeling of Drugs’, Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Law Quarterly 2 (1947): 155; and The United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Reports Vol. 71, No. 11 (Washington, DC: 1956), 1155.34 Durham-Humphrey Amendments of 1951, Pub. L. No. 82-215, §1, 65 Stat. 648, 648 (1951); and United States Food and Drug Administration, ‘FDA’s Evolving Regulatory Powers Part III: Drugs and Foods Under the 1938 Act and its Amendments’, https://www.fda.gov/about-fda/fdas-evolving-regulatory-powers/part-iii-drugs-and-foods-under-1938-act-and-its-amendments (accessed October 10, 2019).35 See for reference United States Food and Drug Administration, Approved Prescription Drug Products with Therapeutic Equivalent Evaluations 3rd Edition (Washington, DC: The United States Department of Health and Human Services, 1982), A-5.36 United States General Services Administration, ‘Drugs for Human Use: Certain Anabolic Steroids; Drug Efficacy Study Implementation’, Federal Register 35, no. 122 (1970): 10328; and Jean Forcroy, ‘Designer Steroids: Past, Present, and Future’, Current Opinion on Endocrinology and Diabetes 13 (2006): 307.37 Peter N. Horvath, ‘The DESI Hit List: The Story and Reflections’, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 5, no. 3 (1981): 363; and The US Food and Drug Administration, ‘FDA’s Evolving Regulatory Powers Part III: Drugs and Foods Under the 1938 Act and Its Amendments’, https://www.fda.gov/about-fda/fdas-evolving-regulatory-powers/part-iii-drugs-and-foods-under-1938-act-and-its-amendments (accessed August 10, 2019).38 Leslie Pray and Sally Robinson, Challenges for the FDA: The Future of Drug Safety, Workshop Summary (Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2007), 14.39 Horvath, ‘The DESI Hit List’, 363–4; and National Academy of Sciences, ‘The Drug Efficacy Study of the National Research Council’s Division of Medical Sciences, 1966-1969’, http://www.nasonline.org/about-nas/history/archives/collections/des-1966-1969-1.html#series_3 (accessed August 4, 2019).40 Ibid.41 United States General Services Administration, ‘Certain Anabolic Steroids, Drug Efficacy Study Implementation’, 10328.42 Ibid.43 Ibid.44 Nicholas Wade, ‘Anabolic Steroids: Doctor’s Denounce Them, but Athletes Aren’t Listening’, Science, New Series 176, no. 4042 (1977): 1401.45 United States Congress, ‘The Drug Problem: Message from the President’, 91st Cong., 1st sess., Congressional Record 115, pt. 14 (July 14, 1984): 19353–4.46 Pennsylvania Crime Mobilization Conference, ‘Address by the Honorable John N. Mitchell, Attorney General of the United States’, Camp Hill, Pennsylvania, December 3, 1969.47 The Controlled Substances Act of 1970, Pub. L. No. 91–513, 84 Stat. (1970), article 812 (A-C); the Act was passed as Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse and Prevention Control Act of 1970. Viewed as the incipient action in Nixon’s War on Drugs, the Act created a taxonomical system for drugs listed in the United States Pharmacopeia based on dependence-forming properties, potential for abuse, and medical applications. Drugs were evaluated then classified in one of five schedules, with Schedule I comprising substances with high abuse-potential and little or no medical use. Correspondingly, drugs under Schedule V were deemed to have legitimate medical uses and little or no potential for abuse or dependency. For a more comprehensive summary of this legislation, see Robert C. Bonner, and Gene R. Haislip, A Security Outline of the Controlled Substances Act of 1970 (Washington, DC: The United States Drug Enforcement Administration, 1991).48 Abood, Pharmacy Practice and the Law, 184.49 In the original legislation and subsequent amendments over the following two decades, anabolic steroids were not listed under any of the five schedules. It was not until 1990 that the drugs were codified as Schedule III substances. See for reference The Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 1990, H.R. 4658, 101 Cong. (1990), sec. 2(A-C), 3(B).50 Nixon used this phrasing in a presidential address in January 1972. See for reference Thomas J. Johnson, Wayne Wanta, Timothy Boudreau, Janet Blank-Libra, Killian Schaffer, and Sally Turner, ‘Influence Dealers: A Path Analysis Model of Agenda Building during Richard Nixon's War on Drugs’, Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73, no. 1 (1996): 184.51 Bil Gilbert, ‘Drug Use and Abuse: The Nature and Extent of the Problem’, Sports Illustrated, June 23, 1969.52 Ibid.53 Ibid.54 Drug Abuse in Athletics: Assembly Interim Subcommittee on Drug Abuse and Alcoholism, ‘Testimony of H. Kay Dooley, October 20, 1970, 9.55 Ibid., 1056 Proper and Improper Use of Drugs by Athletes: Hearings Before the Subcommittee to Investigate Juvenile Delinquency, 93 Cong., 1st sess., June 18, July 12–13, 1973, 2.57 Ibid., 163, 351, 353, 394, 395, 436, 461, 666, 798, 816.58 Proper and Improper Use of Drugs, 2.59 Ibid., 290.60 Ibid., 293.61 Ann Japenga, ‘Guidebook to Steroid Use Is Called Deceptive and Dangerous’, The Los Angeles Times, January 31, 1984.62 Randy Harvey, ‘Canadian Inquiry Told of Bizarre Medical Practices’, The Los Angeles Times, June 20, 1989.63 ‘The Godfather’, Sports Illustrated, March 11, 2008.64 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019; and Todd, ‘Gremlins of Sport’, 104.65 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.66 United States General Services Administration, ‘Certain Anabolic Steroids; Drug Efficacy Study Implementation; Revocation of Exemption; Opportunity for Hearing’, Federal Register 48, no. 12 (January 18, 1983): 2208.67 United States General Services Administration, ‘Certain Anabolic Steroids; Drug Efficacy Study Implementation; Revocation of Exemption; Opportunity for Hearing’, Federal Register 48, no. 94 (May 13, 1983): 21658.68 Llewellyn with Tober, Underground Anabolics, 14; others made similar contentions about this being a turning point of sorts. See for reference Eisendrath, ‘Confessions of a Steroid Smuggler’, 11; for the FDA’s official ruling on the matter see United States General Services Administration, ‘Revocation of Exemption; Opportunity for Hearing’, Federal Register 50, no. 240 (December 13, 1985): 50964; and Daniel Duchaine, Underground Steroid Handbook II: Incorporating Material from the Original Underground Steroid Handbook, Ultimate Muscle Mass, and the USH Updates #1-10 (Venice, CA: HLR Technical Books, 1989), 32.69 Alfano and Janofsky, ‘Weight on Black Market’, The New York Times, November 18, 1988.70 Duchaine, Underground Steroid Handbook II, 36.71 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.72 The Anabolic Steroids Control Act of 1990, 29; and American Medical Association, Council on Scientific Affairs, ‘Drug Misuse: Anabolic Steroids and Human Growth Hormone’, Resolution 57, A-86 (1986), 30.73 Ibid.74 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.75 Assael, Steroid Nation, 13.76 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.77 Assael, Steroid Nation, 12–13; and Gary R. Blockus, ‘Powerlifting Champ to Talk About the Dangers of Steroids’, The Morning Call, March 2, 1989.78 Alan L. Hoeting in interview with Robert A. Tucker, The History of the US Food and Drug Administration (Minneapolis, MN: FDA History Office, 1999), 22–5. The reasoning here is three-fold: for starters, the document’s appendix dates the FDA’s first criminal warrant-search and seizure September 30, 1975; second, in the interview, Hoeting speaks of Degan with high praise for having ‘managed a complex and ‘precedent setting’ investigation’; and third, to the previous point, and also in the document’s appendix, Degan is listed as the recipient of the FDA Award of Merit in 1984 for ‘a brilliant performance in the preparation and management of a complex regulatory case’. Moreover, the document referenced above includes a section titled ‘Significant Historical.79 Assael, Steroid Nation, 12; and ‘The Godfather’, Sports Illustrated, March 11, 2008.80 Assael, Steroid Nation, 13; and Doug Fisher, ‘Former World Weight Lifting Champion Larry Pacifico…’, The Associated Press, June 18, 1987. Degan claimed in an interview for Steroid Nation that Pacifico ‘said just enough to make [him] realize that a silent network of dealers existed’ in the United States, many of them ‘using bodybuilding shows as a base of operations’.81 Robert A. Tucker, The History of the US Food and Drug Administration, appendix 13.82 Assael, Steroid Nation, 14; the author notes that Degan had tried and failed at ‘convincing law enforcement to take the [steroid] problem seriously’.83 Ibid., 13; FBI Director William H. Webster in memorandum to Special Agent in Charge, Los Angeles, ‘Re. Daniel Richard Duchaine’, September 9, 1985; and Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019; and Alan L. Hoeting interview in Robert A. Tucker, The History of the US Food and Drug Administration, 24; there is conflicting evidence as to when Degan contacted the DOJ. In Steroid Nation, Assael claims he did so before raiding Pacifico’s offices, implying that the task force had already been green lit before authorities were aware of a nationwide network, the impetus for creating the task force in the first place. This is in direct contradiction to Halpern’s comments in a 2019 interview, and those of former FDA Director Alan L. Hoeting in 1999.84 Government of Canada, The Commission of Inquiry into the Use of Banned Drugs and Practices Intended to Increase Athletic Performance, commissioned by the Honorable Charles Dubin, November 16, 1988–September 19, 1989 (Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing Center, 1990), 366; and Assael, Steroid Nation, 13.85 Federal Bureau of Investigation, ‘Daniel Richard Duchaine’, in memorandum to Food and Drug Administration and United States Department of Justice, October 10, 1985; and William H. Webster in memorandum to SAC, Los Angeles, September 9, 1985; for references to Fitton’s arrest, see note 16.86 Max Cobb interviewed in Michael Powell, ‘Lest We Forget, the US, Too, Spent Time in the Doping Wilderness’, The New York Times, August 4, 2016, US Biathlon Chief Max Cobb uses the phrase ‘the wild west’ to describe the relative lack of steroid enforcement in the 1980s. See also James Montague, ‘Hero or Villain? Ben Johnson and the Dirtiest Race in History’, CNN Sports, July 23, 2012.87 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.88 Peter Alfano and Michael Janofsky, ‘A Guru Who Spread the Gospel of Steroids’, The New York Times, November 18, 1988.89 Ibid., and Assael, Steroid Nation, 2.90 Japenga, ‘Guidebook to Steroid Use’, The Los Angeles Times, January 31, 1984; and Bruce Kneller in interview with author, August 3, 2019; Kneller served as Duchaine’s research assistant for four years from the late-1980s to the early-1990s. By his account they developed a close friendship over the years and collaborated on several projects for Duchaine’s supplement company.91 Assael, Steroid Nation, 5; Duchaine also makes similar comments in later interviews. For instance, in Alfano and Janofsky, ‘Gospel of Steroids’, The New York Times, November 18, 1988, he asserts anabolic steroids can be safe if used in moderation and adds that the USHB was his attempt to dispel popular myths about the drugs, most of which originated in the medical community.92 Assael, Steroid Nation, 5–7.93 Ibid., 5; incidentally, Duchaine and Zumpano released a longer, edited version of USH sometime in 1983.94 Ibid., 7.95 Alfano and Janofsky, ‘Gospel of Steroids’, The New York Times, November 18, 1988; Japenga, ‘Guidebook to Steroid Use’, The Los Angeles Times, January 31, 1984; and Assael, Steroid Nation, 12.96 Japenga, ‘Guidebook to Steroid Use’, The Los Angeles Times, January 31, 1984.97 Ibid; and Newton, Steroids and Doping in Sports, 96.98 Todd, ‘Gremlins of Sport’, 104; for Ziegler as the ‘father of Dianabol’, see for example John D. Fair, Mr. America: The Tragic History of a Bodybuilding Icon (Austin: The University of Texas Press, 2015), 152; and Robert Dvorchak, ‘Never Enough/Steroids in Sports: Experiment Turns Epidemic’, Post-Gazette (Pittsburgh), October 1, 2005.99 Duchaine, Underground Steroid Handbook, 6–7; the phrase ‘very popular with athletes’, appears in a passage describing the Anavar, an anabolic steroid reputed for mild side-effects and lean muscle gains.100 Todd, ‘Gremlins of Sport’, 104; and FBI Special Agent in Affidavit for Search Warrant, United States District Court, Central District of California, case no. 86-1114m, August 1986, 4; the agent’s name was redacted for security purposes.101 Ibid.102 Ibid.103 Ibid.104 Ibid.; the author was unable to discern or find evidence of what the acronym CKR stood for.105 Ibid.106 It is not clear exactly when the grand jury was assembled, but the preceding correspondence indicates it was no later than November 12, 1985. Presumably this took place sometime between October 10, and the first two weeks of November. In Richard Bretzing, airtel correspondence to FBI Director William H. Webster, November 12, 1985, 3, Bretzing notes the FBI’s Los Angeles Division was awaiting grand jury subpoenas for mail surveillance on Duchaine and six other anabolic steroid dealers on November 12, indicating that the grand jury had already been investigating for an indeterminate timeframe. At the time the grand jury had already been given several bottles of the anabolic steroids Degan through the JZFC. Further evidence of this appears in Richard T. Bretzing in letter to United States Attorney Robert C. Bonner, January 28, 1986.107 In Eisendrath, ‘Confessions of a Steroid Smuggler’, 16, the author finds that Dillon, who is the principal source of information in the piece, was under the impression he was meeting with Duchaine and Jenkins to discuss a legitimate supplement business. Further, according to several sources, Jenkins and Duchaine had discussed anabolic steroids several weeks before the lunch meeting in January 1986. For further reading see Richard Moore, ‘From Gold and Silver to Drugs and Jail David Jenkins Never Ran from Fate’, The Scotsman, July 9, 2012.108 Moore, ‘From Gold and Silver’, The Scotsman, July 9, 2012; for Jenkins’ nicknames, see Assael, Steroid Nation, 14.109 European Athletics, ‘European Athletics Championships, Helsinki 1971’, https://www.european-athletics.org/competitions/european-athleticschampionships/history/year=1971/results/index.html (accessed June 8, 2019), and Davis, ‘Operation Overlord’, The Times, February 11, 1988.110 Moore, ‘From Gold to Silver’, The Scotsman, July 9, 2012.111 The side-effects associated with Dianabol are said to be more numerous and severe than most anabolic steroids. Users have reported severe water retention, muscle tightness, high blood pressure, and psychological malaise. See for reference Oliver Bateman and Danijel Zezelj, ‘Steroid Solidarity: The Culture of Juicing at the Mr. Olympia Competition’, Virginia Quarterly Review 93, no. 3 (2017), 67; and Lisa Anne Richardson, ‘I Need You to Look at Me: An Ethnographic Study of a Subculture of Serious Gym Members’ (PhD diss., San Jose State University, 1991), 26.112 Richard Moore, The Dirtiest Race in History: Ben Johnson, Carl Lewis, and the 1988 Olympic 100m Final (London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2012), 73.113 World Athletics, ‘Athlete Profiles – David Jenkins’, https://www.iaaf.org/athletes/great-britain-ni/david-jenkins-9770 (accessed August 4, 2019); the author contacted David Jenkins for the purpose of an interview for this chapter. Initially Jenkins seemed eager to take part, but several days later denied the request. At minimum this would have provided accurate details on the date Jenkins moved to California. Altogether, sources gathered for this chapter indicate that after retiring from track and field in the summer of 1982 he and his wife moved to Southern California. Given that Jenkins was already operating a ‘successful’ supplement business by mid-to-late 1985, it stands to reason that he emigrated soon after retiring. For comments on Jenkins’ supplement business see Ivor Davis, ‘Athletics: Jenkins on Drug Charges’, The Times (London), May 22, 1987.114 See for example Daniel Duchaine, ‘Newest Developments in Precontest Carbing Up’, Flex (December 1984): 46; and Daniel Duchaine, ‘Free-Form Amino Acids: The Protein Source of the 1980s’, Flex (January 1984): 49; the author accessed past issues of Flex magazine in the H.J. Lutcher Stark Center Sport History Archive at the University of Texas at Austin.115 Moore, ‘From Gold to Silver’, The Scotsman, July 9, 2012.116 Ibid.; in support of Jenkins’ claim, on February 2, 1986 Duchaine distributed a letter to John Ziegler Fan Club customers warning them that the FBI had raided ‘major suppliers on the east and west coast’. While he is not necessarily referring to the San Francisco source referenced by Jenkins, the timelines match. By Jenkins’ account, the supplier was shut down in mid-to-late 1985, about a month before Duchaine issued this warning. The letter is quoted in Todd, ‘Gremlins of Sport’, 104.117 At this point in time Duchaine had at least three different sources for anabolic steroids; in Philadelphia, San Francisco, and Stuttgart. The author pieced together this information through FBI correspondence, Jenkins’ interview, and Eisendrath, ‘Confessions of a Steroid Smuggler’, 12, 15–16.118 Moore, ‘From Gold to Silver’, The Scotsman, July 9, 2012.119 The author was unable to verify this with official competition results; however, this is mentioned in several sources. See for example Newton, Steroids and Doping in Sports, 92; and Eisendrath, ‘Confessions of a Steroid Smuggler’, 12.120 United States of America v. David Jenkins et al., 38; and Alfano and Janofsky, ‘Weight on Black Market’, The New York Times, November 18, 1988.121 United States General Services Administration, ‘Certain Anabolic Steroids’, 50964; and Eisendrath, ‘Confessions of a Steroid Smuggler’, 12; for commentary on the popularity of Dianabol, see for reference Don. H. Catlin, Kenneth Fitch, and Arne Ljungqvist, ‘Medicine and Science in the Fight Against Doping in Sport’, Journal of Internal Medicine 264, no. 2 (2008): 104; and Wade, ‘Doctor’s Denounce Them’, 1400.122 Dillon provided these details in Eisendrath, ‘Confessions of a Steroid Smuggler’, 12; and Assael, Steroid Nation, 15, revealing in both interviews that it was Jenkins’ idea to center the business around Dianabol.123 Ibid.124 Fernando Romero, ‘Drug Lords Feel Mexico Muscle; Tijuana Steroids Lab Shut, 12 Held in Crackdown’, The San Diego Union-Tribune, April 11, 1989; and Assael, Steroid Nation, 16.125 Assael, Steroid Nation, 16.126 On the Hotel Fiesta Americana – the Grand Hotel Tijuana as of 1991 – see for reference Jorge Meraz, ‘Opinion: Growing Up in Tijuana, I Saw How We Shared More Than Just a Border with the US’, The San Diego Union-Tribune, July 10, 2022; and Rik Espinosa, Espinosa’s Guide to Baja: The Indispensable Companion of any Gringo Visiting Tijuana, Rosarito, Enesenada, and Tecate (Austin, TX: The University of Texas Press, 1989), 86–7; on the Tijuana Country Club in years past, see Thurber Dennis Proffitt, Tijuana: The History of a Mexican Metropolis (San Diego, CA: San Diego State University Press, 1994), 196–7; and ‘Furgol, Souchak Head Field in Tijuana Open’, Rome News-Tribune, January 17, 1958.127 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019; for details on Jenkins locating a source fo
1987年5月,美国检察官办公室提交了一份联邦起诉书,列出了历史上最大的合成代谢类固醇贩运团伙的36名同谋。一项为期两年的联邦调查显示,在美国大陆存在着一个价值1亿美元的黑市,其中据称有70%是由一群潜在的毒枭提供的:奥运银牌得主大卫·詹金斯;Dan Duchaine,一位成功的作家和著名的类固醇权威;以及来自中西部的航空工程师威廉·狄龙。就像禁酒令时期(1920-1933)的私酒商一样,这些人利用了政府加强监管留下的市场空白。在20世纪80年代中期,由美国食品和药物管理局牵头的一项为期20年的药物审查运动最终将所有合成代谢类固醇从制药市场上移除;大量广泛使用的物质被一举清除。20世纪80年代初,奥林匹克运动中系统性使用药物的揭露引发了反兴奋剂执法的范式转变;然而,立法议程没有发生这样的变化。直到拳击圈被拆散后,美国的政策制定者才开始注意到这一点,并认真地开始了一场持续肆虐的类固醇之战。关键词:合成代谢类固醇;提高成绩的药物;贩毒;犯罪阴谋;毒品战争;支持本研究结果的原始数据可通过通讯作者索取。披露声明作者未报告潜在的利益冲突。注1 Cerisse Anderson,“寻找类固醇销售的力量举重运动员”,合众国际出版社,1985年5月11日;约翰·古德博迪,《一项面临新放逐威胁的运动》,《泰晤士报》(伦敦),1990年1月31日,同上;《一名英国举重运动员认罪后失踪》,合众国际社,1985年8月26日;菲顿两年前在亚特兰大机场被捕,当时他携带了2.2万剂合成代谢类固醇和人类生长激素(HGH)。次年,他因非法持有一种药品而被定罪,并被判处两年缓刑和五年缓刑。欲进一步阅读,请参见David Granger,“类固醇的故事:Sandler认为药物是通往大时代的一条路”,阿拉巴马州杂志,1988.1。L.第75-717号,52 Stat. 1040(1938), 49, 396.4菲利普·哈尔彭接受作者采访,2019年8月24日。哈尔彭同意对作者进行几次电话录音采访,并声称对他早年在美国检察官办公室工作的经历有清晰的记忆。他在圣地亚哥担任助理美国检察官超过35年,其中前5年主要致力于起诉与类固醇有关的罪行几年来,食品和药物管理局一直在加强对合成代谢类固醇的管制,恳求制药公司证实其合法医疗用途的说法。参见《1990年合成类固醇控制法:司法委员会犯罪小组委员会听证会》,H.R. 4658, 101年,第二次会议。,“罗纳德·g·切斯莫尔事先准备的陈述”,1990年5月17日,第32-33页;虽然合成代谢类固醇是由美国食品和药物管理局1938年的美国食品药品和化妆品法案监管的,但当时这些药物并没有列入计划。参见1970年《综合药物滥用预防和控制法》,Pub。L.第91-513号,第84 Stat(1970),第812条,A-C.89格兰杰,《类固醇的故事》,《阿拉巴马日报》,1985年8月1日;国际举重联合会,“世界女子举重锦标赛”,2019年9月16日,https://www.powerlifting.sport/fileadmin/ipf/data/results/worlds/worldpowerlifting.info/worldpowerlifting.info/IPF_Powerlifting_Senior_Women_1980-2006.htm;2019年8月24日,Phillip Halpern接受作者采访;和David Granger和Alan Schmodtke,“与非盟有关的类固醇交易商”,阿拉巴马杂志,1985年7月30日。Shaun Assael,类固醇国家:大量的本垒打总数,抗衰老的奇迹,每所高中的大力神:美国真正的药物成瘾的秘密历史(纽约,纽约:ESPN Books, 2007), 13.13《加州大学的力量教练》,美联社,1985年12月18日;14 Phillip Halpern在采访作者时,2019年8月24日;15 Terry Todd,《合成代谢类固醇:体育的小魔怪》,《体育史杂志》第7期,第13期。1 (1987): 104;托德引用了对乔治亚州地方检察官克利福德·a·斯蒂彻(Clifford A. Stitcher)的采访作为菲顿入狱的消息来源。 《一位失踪的英国举重运动员》,合合社国际版,1985年8月26日。威廉·奥斯卡·约翰逊,“类固醇:一个巨大的问题”,《体育画报》,1985年5月13日。伊沃·戴维斯,“毒品集团的霸王行动:一个名叫“斗牛犬”的顽强律师如何追踪X先生,别名大卫·詹金斯,英国奥运会短跑运动员,现在在美国等待判决”,《泰晤士报》(伦敦),1988年2月11日;约翰·艾森德拉斯的《一个类固醇走私者的自白》;《当对肌肉的追求变成了对大钱的热情》,洛杉矶时报杂志1988.21美国对大卫·詹金斯、胡安·哈维尔·麦克利斯、丹尼尔·杜尚恩、威廉·p·狄龙、詹姆斯·m·英斯科、罗伯特·万茨、大卫·格里格斯、伦纳德·t·斯威达、托伊沃·曼森、迈克尔·麦克唐纳、迈克尔·马策拉、朗·齐格勒、杰弗里·戈利尼、诺曼德·伯格兰、约翰·斯雷尼克、马克·德普、史蒂文·亨内伯里、帕特里克·雅各布斯、杰弗里·贾里森、托马斯·宾斯、杰拉尔德·琼斯、Steven Marx, Steven Hein, Dennis J. Motte, Garry de Paepe, Vito Elefante, Gil R. Thompson, Rafael Lepe-Duenas, Samuel Martinez-Moreno, Jose Zapata, Marco Macklis, Culberto Lopez, Fito Alvarez, United Pharmaceuticals, Laboratorios Milano de Mexico,美国加州南区地方法院,刑事案件编号:87-0491-JLI, 1987年5月20日;2019年8月24日,菲利普·哈尔彭接受作者采访;提交人从36名共同被告的首席检察官Halpern那里获得了一份联邦起诉书的副本。关于David Jenkins和Dan Duchaine的详细信息,见Alfano和Janofsky,“黑市上的重量”,1988年11月18日,纽约时报;理查德·摩尔,《从黄金到白银,从毒品到监狱》,《苏格兰人报》,2012年7月9日;和Alessandro Donati,“世界兴奋剂交易”,30-1,https://www.wada.ama.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/WADA_Donati_Report_On_Trafficking_2007.pdf(访问日期为2019年8月10日)米歇尔·考夫曼,“飓风”力量教练是全国34个因走私类固醇而被起诉的人之一,《坦帕湾时报》,1987年5月22日;戴维斯,《霸王行动》,《泰晤士报》(伦敦)1988.23年2月11日。国会听证会讨论了拟议的合成代谢类固醇法规,特别提到了詹金斯领导的走私团伙。参见《1989年合成类固醇限制法案:众议院司法委员会听证会》,第101届(1989),第8页;《1990年合成代谢类固醇控制法》,第40-3.24条;《1988年反药物滥用法》,H.R. 5210, 21 USC 333a。1990年合成代谢类固醇控制法,H.R. 4658, 101 Cong.(1990),第2(A-C), 3(B);和1970年控制物质法案,第812 (B-2), 523条。《法案》附表三所列药物必须具有适度滥用的可能性、目前已被接受的医疗用途以及身体和心理上的成瘾性。进一步阅读见Richard Abood,《药学实践与法律》,第四版(明尼苏达州萨德伯里:Jones and Bartlett出版社,2005),147-54.26。Alfano和Janofsky,《黑市上的重量》,《纽约时报》,1988年11月18日;Donati, ' World Trafficking on Doping Substances ', 30.28通过对Lexis Nexis数据库和其他新闻档案的搜索,发现了数百篇涉及此案的文章。大多数都是在同谋者被起诉和判刑之间写的,可以在本章中找到。进一步阅读见Llewellyn与Tober,地下合成代谢,14-15;Rob Beamish,类固醇:提高成绩药物的新视角(Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO LLC, 2011), 136;和David E. Newton,《运动中的类固醇和兴奋剂:参考手册》(Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO LLC, 2018), 92.29牛顿,《运动中的类固醇和兴奋剂》,92;Richard I.G. Holt, Ioulietta Erotokritou-Mulligan和Peter H. Sönksen,“运动中兴奋剂和生长激素滥用的历史”,生长激素和IGF研究19(2009):322.30美国食品药品和化妆品法案,49,396.31同上,42 - 3,46,49.32 Todd,“运动的小魔徒”,94;John Fair,《等长或类固醇:探索20世纪60年代早期力量的新领域》,《体育历史杂志》20(1993):1-24,作者指出,Ciba制药公司在1955年左右获得合成代谢类固醇美雄甾酮的专利,并于1958年以商品名Dianabol发布。事实上,虽然学者们普遍认为Dianabol是第一个上市的合成代谢类固醇,但它并不是第一个由睾酮合成的合成代谢类固醇。 Johnson, Wayne Wanta, Timothy Boudreau, Janet Blank-Libra, Killian Schaffer和Sally Turner,“影响经销商:理查德·尼克松禁毒战争期间议程构建的路径分析模型”,《新闻与大众传播季刊》第73期,第2期。1(1996): 184.51比尔·吉尔伯特,“药物使用和滥用:问题的性质和程度”,《体育报》,1969.52同上。53同上。54体育运动中的药物滥用:药物滥用和酒精中毒大会临时小组委员会,“h.k ay Dooley的证词,1970年10月20日,9.55同上。1056运动员正确和不正确使用药物:调查青少年犯罪小组委员会听证会,1993年第一次会议。”1973年6月18日,1973年7月12-13日,2.57同上,163,351,353,394,395,436,461,666,798,816.58正确和不正确使用药物,2.59同上,290.60同上,293.61安·贾潘加,“类固醇使用指南被称为欺骗性和危险的”,洛杉矶时报,1984.62兰迪·哈维,“加拿大调查告诉奇怪的医疗行为”,洛杉矶时报,1989.20“教父”,体育画报,2008年3月11日,64 Phillip Halpern采访作者,2019年8月24日;和Todd,“体育的小魔头”,104.65 Phillip Halpern在接受作者采访时,2019.66美国总务管理局,“某些合成代谢类固醇;药物疗效研究实施;撤销豁免;《听证机会》,《联邦公报》第48号。12(1983年1月18日):2208.67美国总务管理局,“某些合成代谢类固醇;药物疗效研究实施;撤销豁免;《听证机会》,《联邦公报》第48号。94(1983年5月13日):21658.68 Llewellyn with Tober, Underground Anabolics, 14;其他人也提出了类似的观点,认为这是一个转折点。参见Eisendrath,“一个类固醇走私者的自白”,11;关于FDA对此事的官方裁决,见美国总务管理局,“撤销豁免;《听证机会》,《联邦公报》第50号。240(1985年12月13日):50964;和Daniel Duchaine,地下类固醇手册II:结合原始地下类固醇手册,终极肌肉质量和USH更新#1-10的材料(加利福尼亚州威尼斯:HLR技术书籍,1989年),32.69 Alfano和Janofsky,“黑市上的重量”,纽约时报,1988.8.70 Duchaine,地下类固醇手册II, 36.71 Phillip Halpern在接受作者采访时,2019.72 1990年合成代谢类固醇控制法,29;美国医学协会,科学事务委员会,“药物滥用:合成代谢类固醇和人类生长激素”,第57号决议,A-86(1986), 30.73同上。74 Phillip Halpern在与作者的采访中,2019.8月24日,assel,类固醇国家,13.76 Phillip Halpern在与作者的采访中,2019.77年8月24日,assel,类固醇国家,12-13;和Gary R. Blockus,“举重冠军谈论类固醇的危害”,1989年3月2日《晨报》。Alan L. Hoeting在与Robert A. Tucker的访谈中,《美国食品和药物管理局的历史》(Minneapolis, MN: FDA历史办公室,1999),22-5页。这里的理由有三点:首先,该文件的附录将FDA的第一次刑事搜查和扣押日期定在1975年9月30日;其次,在采访中,霍廷高度赞扬了德根“处理了一项复杂的、‘开创先例的’调查”;第三,对于前一点,也是在文件的附录中,Degan被列为1984年FDA优异奖的获得者,因为他“在准备和管理一个复杂的监管案例方面表现出色”。此外,上面提到的文件包括一个标题为“重大历史。79”的章节,类固醇国家,12;和“教父”,2008年3月11日《体育画报》。Doug Fisher,“前世界举重冠军Larry Pacifico……”,美联社,1987年6月18日。德根在接受《类固醇之国》(steroids Nation)的采访时声称,Pacifico说的话足以让他意识到,在美国存在着一个无声的毒贩网络,其中许多人“以健美秀为行动基地”Robert A. Tucker, The History of US Food and Drug Administration,附录13.82 Assael, steroids Nation, 14;作者指出,德根曾试图“说服执法部门认真对待[类固醇]问题”,但以失败告终如上,13;联邦调查局局长威廉·h·韦伯斯特在给洛杉矶负责特别探员的备忘录中写道。丹尼尔·理查德·杜尚1985年9月9日;2019年8月24日,菲利普·哈尔彭接受作者采访;和Alan L. Hoeting在Robert A. Tucker, The History of US Food and Drug Administration, 24的访谈;关于德根联系司法部的时间,有相互矛盾的证据。 在《类固醇之国》一书中,阿萨尔声称他是在突袭Pacifico办公室之前就这么做的,这意味着在当局意识到一个全国性的网络之前,这个工作组就已经被批准了,而这个网络正是创建这个工作组的最初动力。这与Halpern在2019年接受采访时的言论,以及前FDA局长Alan L. Hoeting在1999年的言论直接矛盾。84加拿大政府,由查尔斯·杜宾阁下委托,1988年11月16日至1989年9月19日(渥太华:加拿大政府出版中心,1990),366;1985年10月10日,联邦调查局“Daniel Richard Duchaine”,致食品和药物管理局和美国司法部的备忘录;和威廉·h·韦伯斯特在1985年9月9日给洛杉矶SAC的备忘录中;关于菲顿的被捕,见注释16.86马克斯·科布在迈克尔·鲍威尔的采访,“我们不要忘记,美国也在兴奋剂的荒野中度过了一段时间”,纽约时报,2016年8月4日,美国冬季两项主席马克斯·科布用“狂野的西部”这个词来形容20世纪80年代相对缺乏类固醇执法。参见詹姆斯·蒙塔古的《英雄还是恶棍?》《本·约翰逊和历史上最肮脏的比赛》,CNN体育,2012年7月23日;Phillip Halpern接受作者采访,2019年8月24日;Peter Alfano和Michael Janofsky,《传播类固醇福音的大师》,《纽约时报》,1988年11月18日;2019年8月3日,布鲁斯·克内勒接受作者采访;从20世纪80年代末到90年代初,Kneller担任了四年杜尚的研究助理。据他说,他们多年来建立了亲密的友谊,并为杜尚的补品公司合作了几个项目阿赛尔,类固醇之国,5分;杜尚纳在后来的采访中也发表了类似的评论。例如,在Alfano和Janofsky 1988年11月18日《纽约时报》的《类固醇的福音》中,他断言,如果适度使用,合成代谢类固醇是安全的,并补充说,USHB是他试图消除关于这些药物的流行神话,这些神话大多起源于医学界assel, steroids Nation, 5 - 7.93同上,5;顺便说一句,杜尚恩和祖姆帕诺在1983.94年的某个时候发行了一个更长的,经过编辑的USH版本,同上,7.95阿尔法诺和雅诺夫斯基,“类固醇的福音”,纽约时报,1988年11月18日;Japenga,《类固醇使用指南》,洛杉矶时报,1984年1月31日;和Assael,类固醇国家,12.96 Japenga,“类固醇使用指南”,洛杉矶时报,1984.97年1月31日,同上;Newton,《体育中的类固醇和兴奋剂》,96.98托德,《体育的魔女》,104分;关于齐格勒作为“戴安娜之父”,参见约翰·d·费尔的《美国先生:健美偶像的悲剧历史》(奥斯汀:德克萨斯大学出版社,2015年),152;Robert Dvorchak,“永远不够/运动中的类固醇:实验变成流行病”,Post-Gazette(匹兹堡),2005年10月1日;在一篇描述Anavar的文章中出现了“非常受运动员欢迎”这一短语,Anavar是一种合成代谢类固醇,以副作用轻微和增肌而闻名托德,《体育界的小妖精》,104分;和联邦调查局特工在搜查令宣誓书,美国地方法院,加利福尼亚中区,案件编号。86-1114m, 1986年8月,4;为了安全起见,代理人的名字被涂黑了同上。102同上。103同上。104;作者无法辨别或找到证据证明首字母缩略词CKR代表什么同上。106 .不清楚大陪审团是何时组成的,但之前的信件表明不迟于1985年11月12日。据推测,这发生在10月10日至11月的前两周之间。在Richard Bretzing于1985年11月12日发给联邦调查局局长William H. Webster的电话通信中,Bretzing指出,联邦调查局洛杉矶分部正在等待大陪审团的传票,以便在11月12日对Duchaine和其他六名合成代谢类固醇交易商进行邮件监视,这表明大陪审团已经在调查一个不确定的时间范围。当时,大陪审团已经通过JZFC拿到了几瓶合成代谢类固醇Degan。这方面的进一步证据出现在Richard T. Bretzing给美国检察官Robert C. Bonner的信中,1986年1月28日。在Eisendrath的《一个类固醇走私者的自白》中,作者发现Dillon,他是这篇文章的主要信息来源,在他的印象中,他是在与Duchaine和Jenkins会面,讨论合法的补充业务。此外,根据几个消息来源,詹金斯和杜尚在1986年1月的午餐会议前几周讨论了合成代谢类固醇。 进一步阅读请参见理查德·摩尔,《从金银到毒品和监狱》,《苏格兰人报》,2012年7月9日。关于詹金斯的绰号,请参见阿塞尔,类固醇之国,14.109欧洲田径,“1971年赫尔辛基欧洲田径锦标赛”,https://www.european-athletics.org/competitions/european-athleticschampionships/history/year=1971/results/index.html(访问日期:2019年6月8日),以及戴维斯,“霸王行动”,1988年2月11日,《泰晤士报》。2012.111与Dianabol相关的副作用据说比大多数合成代谢类固醇更多和更严重。使用者报告了严重的水潴留、肌肉紧绷、高血压和心理不适。参见Oliver Bateman和Danijel Zezelj,“类固醇团结:奥林匹亚先生比赛中的榨汁文化”,《弗吉尼亚季刊评论》93期。3 (2017), 67;丽莎·安妮·理查森的《我需要你看着我:对严肃健身会员亚文化的人种学研究》(博士论文)。26.112理查德·摩尔,《历史上最肮脏的比赛:本·约翰逊、卡尔·刘易斯和1988年奥运会100米决赛》(伦敦:布鲁姆斯伯里出版社,2012年),73.113世界田径,《运动员简介-大卫·詹金斯》,https://www.iaaf.org/athletes/great-britain-ni/david-jenkins-9770(访问日期:2019年8月4日);作者联系了David Jenkins为本章做采访。起初詹金斯似乎很想参加,但几天后他拒绝了这一请求。这至少可以提供詹金斯搬到加利福尼亚的确切日期。总之,为本章收集的资料表明,1982年夏天,他和妻子从田径队退役后,搬到了南加州。鉴于詹金斯在1985年中后期就已经经营着一家“成功的”补品企业,他在退休后不久就移民是有道理的。关于詹金斯补充业务的评论,见Ivor Davis,“田径:詹金斯的毒品指控”,《泰晤士报》(伦敦),1987.5月22日。参见Daniel Duchaine,“赛前热身的最新进展”,Flex(1984年12月):46;Daniel Duchaine,“自由形式氨基酸:20世纪80年代的蛋白质来源”,Flex(1984年1月):49;作者查阅了德克萨斯大学奥斯汀分校H.J. Lutcher Stark中心体育历史档案馆的Flex杂志过去的几期。115摩尔,“从金到银”,苏格兰人,2012年7月9日116同上;为了支持詹金斯的说法,1986年2月2日,杜夏纳给约翰·齐格勒粉丝俱乐部的顾客发了一封信,警告他们联邦调查局突袭了“东西海岸的主要供应商”。虽然他不一定指的是詹金斯提到的旧金山消息来源,但时间线是吻合的。根据詹金斯的说法,这家供应商在1985年中后期被关闭,大约在杜尚发出这一警告的一个月前。这封信被Todd引用,' Gremlins of Sport ', 104.117在这个时间点上,Duchaine至少有三个不同的合成代谢类固醇来源;在费城、旧金山和斯图加特。作者通过FBI的信件、Jenkins的采访和Eisendrath的《忏悔录》(Confessions of a类固醇走私者),12,15 - 16.18拼凑了这些信息。Moore,《从金到银》,The Scotsman, 2012年7月9日。然而,在几个来源中提到了这一点。参见牛顿,《运动中的类固醇和兴奋剂》,92;和Eisendrath,“类固醇走私者的供词”,2012年12月,美利坚合众国诉David Jenkins等人,38;Alfano和Janofsky,“黑市上的重量”,纽约时报,1988.11月18日。121美国总务管理局,“某些合成代谢类固醇”,50964;艾森德拉特,《一个类固醇走私者的自白》,12页;关于Dianabol受欢迎程度的评论,请参阅参考Don。H. Catlin, Kenneth Fitch, and Arne Ljungqvist,“在运动中对抗兴奋剂的医学和科学”,《内科医学杂志》264,第2期。2 (2008): 104;狄龙在艾森德拉特的《一个类固醇走私者的自白》第12期中提供了这些细节;和15岁的“类固醇之国”阿萨尔,他在两次采访中都透露,以dianaboll为中心的生意是詹金斯的主意。123同上。124费尔南多·罗梅罗,“毒枭感受墨西哥肌肉;蒂华纳类固醇实验室被关闭,12年镇压,圣地亚哥联合论坛报,1989年4月11日;和Assael,类固醇国家,16.125 Assael,类固醇国家,16。 126关于Tijuana Hotel Fiesta Americana——1991年的Tijuana大酒店——参考Jorge Meraz,“观点:在Tijuana长大,我看到我们与美国共享的不仅仅是边界”,圣地亚哥联合论坛报,2022年7月10日;和里克·埃斯皮诺萨,《埃斯皮诺萨的巴哈指南:任何外国游客游览蒂华纳、罗萨里托、埃内塞纳达和泰卡特的不可或缺的伴侣》(德克萨斯州奥斯汀:德克萨斯大学出版社,1989年),86-7页;关于蒂华纳乡村俱乐部在过去的几年里,见瑟伯·丹尼斯·普罗菲特,蒂华纳:墨西哥大都市的历史(圣地亚哥,加利福尼亚州:圣地亚哥州立大学出版社,1994年),196-7;《罗马新闻论坛报》1958年1月17日“提华纳公开赛Furgol, Souchak Head Field”。关于詹金斯找到线人的细节