Mass Mobilization, Non-Competition and Proletarian Expertise: Mass Callisthenics and the Contested Egalitarian Politics in the Early People’s Republic of China, 1949–1976

IF 0.8 4区 教育学 Q1 HISTORY
Yiyang Wu
{"title":"Mass Mobilization, Non-Competition and Proletarian Expertise: Mass Callisthenics and the Contested Egalitarian Politics in the Early People’s Republic of China, 1949–1976","authors":"Yiyang Wu","doi":"10.1080/09523367.2023.2274048","DOIUrl":null,"url":null,"abstract":"AbstractAfter the establishment of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) promoted ‘mass sports and physical culture’ (qunzhong tiyu) to justify its political claims and serve socialist construction. The relative ease of promoting its easily amendable forms and collective spirit earned mass callisthenics a distinctive role in Maoist physical culture. Much energy went into the distinctive creation of what became Mao-era China’s (1949-1976) two most pervasive and significantly symbolic forms of mass callisthenics: broadcast callisthenics (guangbo ticao) and production callisthenics (shengchan cao). However, this development was inundated with twists and turns for the CCP, sports leaders and experts, and ordinary participants due to the Party’s ambivalent egalitarian politics, which relied heavily on mass mobilization and revered proletarian expertise, reflecting its complicated and divided interpretation of the Soviet model and its recollection of its own revolutionary legacy. Through an analysis of abundant central and local materials, this article tells the unheeded story of mass callisthenics, which was a miniature of the contested anti-elitism movements of Mao-era China.Keywords: Mass callisthenicsMaoist egalitarian politicsthe Chinese Communist Party (CCP)physical education professionalsthe working class Disclosure StatementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).Notes1 ‘Fulaishan jiedao houshiyao xiaoxue shisheng lexiang dijiutao guangbo ticao’[Students and teachers of Houshiyao primary school at Fulaishan subdistrict enjoy doing the ninth edition of broadcast callisthenics], November 12, 2019, https://www.meipian.cn/2ihxo5hb (accessed May 18, 2022).2 In Chinese, the term ‘tiyu’ covers all the English definitions of ‘sports’, ‘physical culture’ and ‘physical education’. Thus, I leave it untranslated in most parts of my writing and use these English terms in specific contexts. In this article, the term ‘mass tiyu’ (qunzhong tiyu) refers to sports and physical culture programmes that were designed for the general public. By contrast, the term ‘elite sports’ refers to programmes that aimed to cultivate specialist athletes.3 For callisthenics in modern China, see Andrew D. Morris, Marrow of the Nation: A History of Sport and Physical Culture in Republican China (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2004); Hwang Jinlin, Lishi, shenti, guojia: jindai zhongguo de shenti xing-cheng, 1895–1937 [History, body and the state: The formation of the body in modern China, 1895–1937] (Beijing: Xinxing chubanshe, 2006), 45–86; Robert Culp, ‘Rethinking Governmentality: Training, Cultivation, and Cultural Citizenship in Nationalist China’, The Journal of Asian Studies 65, no. 3 (2006): 529–48; Nicolas Schillinger, The Body and Military Masculinity in Late Qing and Early Republican China: The Art of Governing Soldiers (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2016). For callisthenics in socialist bloc countries, see James Riordan, Sport in Soviet Society: Development of Sport and Physical Education in Russia and the USSR (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977); Susan Grant, Physical Culture and Sport in Soviet Society: Propaganda, Acculturation, and Transformation in the 1920s and 1930s (New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2014); David L. Hoffman, ‘Bodies of Knowledge: Physical Culture and the New Soviet Man’, in Language and Revolution: Making Modern Political Identities, ed. Igal Halfin (London and Portland: Frank Cass, 2002), 228–42; Molly Wilkinson Johnson, Training Socialist Citizens: Sports and the State in East Germany (Leiden: Brill, 2008); Gyongyi Szabo Foldesi, ‘From Mass Sport to the “Sport for All” Movement in the “Socialist” Countries in Eastern Europe’, International Review for the Sociology of Sport 26, no. 4 (1991):239–534 Michel Bonnin, The Lost Generation: The Rustication of China’s Educated Youth (1968–1980) (Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 2013), 13–8.5 See Mark Selden, China in Revolution: The Yanan Way Revisited (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1995), 249–54; Miin-ling Yu, ‘“Labor Is Glorious”: Model Laborers in the PRC’, in China Learns from the Soviet Union, eds. Thomas P. Bernstein and Hua-yu Li (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2010), 231–58.6 Sigrid Schmalzer, ‘Red and Expert’, in Afterlives of Chinese Communism: Political Concepts from Mao to Xi, ed. Christian Sorace, Ivan Franceschini and Nicholas Loubere (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 2019), 215–20.7 John M. Hoberman, Sport and Political Ideology (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1984), 219.8 Dong-Jhy Hwang and Li-Ke Chang. ‘Sport, Maoism and the Beijing Olympics: One Century One Ideology’, China Perspectives, no. 1 (2008): 4–17.9 Morris, Marrow of the Nation, 30–7, 105–12, 128–39. However, military callisthenics (bingcao) also faced many social criticisms for its barbarism (ibid., 36–41, 48–52). ‘Trophyism’ and the ‘athlete system’ were terms used by social critics in modern China, respectively criticizing those who participated in sports allegedly only for winning trophies and those who developed tiyu for the sake of selecting and cultivating elite athletes.10 Wang Zengming and Zeng Biao, eds., Zhongguo hongse tiyushi [History of Chinese red tiyu] (Xi’an: Xibei daxue chubanshe, 2013), 62–5, 125–8.11 Morris, Marrow of the Nation, 127. The nationalist government refers to the government that governed the Republic of China (ROC) from 1925 to 1948, led by the Kuomintang (KMT or Chinese Nationalist Party).12 See Andrew G. Walder, China under Mao: A Revolution Derailed (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017), 39; Maurice Meisner, Mao’s China and After: A History of the People’s Republic (New York: Free Press, 1999), 31–54.13 See Yu, ‘“Labor Is Glorious”’, 234–5; Selden, China in Revolution.14 Wang and Zeng, Zhongguo hongse tiyushi, 194–220.15 Thomas P. Bernstein, ‘Introduction: The Complexities of Learning from the Soviet Union’, in China Learns from the Soviet Union, ed. Bernstein and Li, 8. Bernstein categorized three Soviet models and used the term ‘revolutionary Stalinism’ to describe the Soviet ‘socialist offensive’ of 1929–1934.16 Susan Brownell, Training the Body for China: Sports in the Moral Order of the People’s Republic (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 19.17 Grace Yen Shen, ‘Scientism in the Twentieth Century’, in Modern Chinese Religion II, 1850–2015, ed. Vincent Goossaert, Jan Kiely and John Lagerway (Leiden & Boston: Brill, 2014), 91–137.18 Timothy Cheek, The Intellectual in Modern Chinese History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 155; Eddy U, Creating the Intellectual: Chinese Communism and the Rise of a Classification (Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2019), 42–67; Meisner, Mao’s China and After, 44; Sigrid Schmalzer, The People’s Peking Man: Popular Science and Human Identity in Twentieth-Century China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 113–5.19 Bernstein, ‘Introduction’, 8. Technological elitism was a major feature of what Bernstein defined as ‘bureaucratic and middle-class Stalinism’, as the account that follows unveils.20 Meisner, Mao’s China and After, 54.21 See Wu Shaozu, ed., Zhonghua renmin gongheguo tiyushi, 1949–1998 [Sports history of the People’s Republic of China, 1949–1998] (Beijing: Zhongguo shuji chubanshe, 1999), 1–6; Amanda Shuman, ‘The Politics of Socialist Athletics in the People’s Republic of China, 1949–1966’ (PhD diss., University of California, Santa Cruz, 2014), 63–72; Liang Shen and Hong Fan, ‘Sport, Ideology and Nation-Building in the Early Years of the People’s Republic of China’, The International Journal of the History of Sport 38, no. 17 (2021): 1774–90.22 Riordan, Sport in Soviet Society, 101–2.23 For the history of Chinese group callisthenics, see Huang Kuanrou, Mao Xuexin and Wu Xin, ‘The Historical Development of Chinese Group Callisthenics’, The International Journal of the History of Sport 28, no. 7 (2011): 1072–85.24 ‘Beijingshi diyijie renmin tiyudahui choubei gongzuo zongjie’ [Summary of the preparation work for the First Beijing People’s Sports Meeting], Xin tiyu, July 1950, 30.25 Feng Wenbin, ‘Guanyu kaizhan renmin tiyu de jige wenti’ [Several issues on the development of people’s tiyu], Xin tiyu, September 1950, 4.26 The Chinese New Democratic Youth League (renamed the Chinese Communist Youth League in 1957) supervised national tiyu in the early 1950s. The ACSF, officially founded in 1952, was the PRC’s first national tiyu organization.27 Feng, ‘Guanyu kaizhan renmin tiyu de jige wenti’, 4.28 Riordan, Sport in Soviet Society, 137.29 ‘Guangbo ticao: bange shiji de quanmin jianshen jiyi’ [Broadcast callisthenics: Half a century of memories of mass physical exercises], Beijing ribao, July 15, 2008, 1430 ‘Guanyu tuiguang guangbo ticao de lianhe tongzhi’ [Joint notification on promoting broadcast callisthenics], November 24, 1951, in Zhonghua renmin gongheguo tiyu yundong wenjian huibian (diyi ji) [PRC sports documents (compilation 1)] (Beijing: Renmin tiyu chubanshe, 1957), 10.31 Hao Keqiang, ‘Zuoticao shi aiguo qingnian meitian bibukeshao de huodong’ [Doing broadcast callisthenics is an indispensable activity for patriotic youth], Xin tiyu, December 1951, 13.32 Wu Xue, ‘68sui de guangbo ticao: quanmin yundong de “qimeng”’[68 year-old broadcast callisthenics: the ‘torchbearer’ of mass physical exercises], Xinmin zhoukan, November 20, 2019, 38.33 See Shuman, ‘The Politics of Socialist Athletics in the People’s Republic of China’, 72–7.34 Chen Zhenhua, Lu Enchun and Li Shiming, Zhongguo ticao yundong shi [History of Chinese callisthenics and gymnastics] (Wuhan: Wuhan chubanshe, 1990), 605.35 Yang Wei, ‘Wo de muqin yanglie’ [My mother Yang Lie], in Chao’an wenshi (di shiyi ji) [Historical accounts of the Chao’an County (vol. 11)], ed. Chao’an xian zhengxie wenshi weiyuanhui (Chao’an, 2007), 100–2.36 ‘Guangbo ticao: bange shiji de quanmin jianshen jiyi’, 14.37 Pei Shunyuan and Zhang Xiangchao, ‘Guomian wuchang dianxing shiyan de guangbocao’ [Typical experiments of broadcast callisthenics in the No. 5 State-Owned Cotton Mill], Xinmin wanbao, September 2, 1953, 4.38 Dong Chengliang and Jin Zhaojun, ‘Guangbo ticao dui zengjin shenti jiankang de jiazhi’ [The values of broadcast callisthenics for physical health], Xinmin wanbao, January 30, 1953, 3.39 Wu Weili, ‘Huxi gongren julebu juban guangbocao xuexiban’ [Huxi workers’ club held broadcast callisthenics study classes], Xinmin wanbao, January 16, 1953, 3.40 ‘Guangbo ticao: bange shiji de quanmin jianshen jiyi’, 14.41 ‘Guanyu zai quanguo xiaoxue zhong tuixing shaonian guangbo ticao de lianhe zhishi’ [Joint instruction on promoting juvenile broadcast callisthenics in primary schools nationwide], August, 1954, in Zhonghua renmin gongheguo tiyu yundong wenjian huibian (diyi ji), 80–1.42 The period 1953–1957 was the PRC’s transition to socialism. Largely modelled on revolutionary Stalinism, the PRC began its rapid industrialization and economic collectivization.43 Yu, ‘“Labor Is Glorious”’, 235–6.44 Many studies have analyzed the internal and external politics of the PRC’s elite competitive sports during the Mao years. For some comprehensive accounts, see Xu Guoqi, Olympic Dreams: China and Sports, 1895–2008 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008); Fan Hong and Lu Zhouxiang, The Politicisation of Sport in Modern China: Communists and Champions (London: Routledge, 2014); Shuman, ‘The Politics of Socialist Athletics in the People’s Republic of China, 1949–1966’; Aurélien Boucher and Steven Pope, ‘Without a Red Leader’s Fan: A Connected History of the Emergence of Table Tennis as China’s National Sport’, Asian Journal of Sport History & Culture 1, no. 1 (2022): 40–58.45 Shuman, ‘The Politics of Socialist Athletics in the People’s Republic of China, 1949–1966’, 252–546 Zhang Xiangchao, ‘Zhengque renshi juban yundong jingsaihui de yiyi’ [Properly understand the meaning of holding sports competition meetings], Xinmin wanbao, October 17, 1953, 4.47 ‘Shanghaishi tiyu yundong weiyuanhui guanyu shanghaishi kaizhan guangbo ticao de qingkuang baogao’ [Report from the SMSC preparation committee on situations for promoting broadcast callisthenics in Shanghai], November 1953, B126-1-52-20, Shanghai Municipal Archives, Shanghai, China (hereafter SMA).48 ‘Huochetou tiyu xiehui shanghai fenqu jinri juxing guangbo ticao bisai’ [Shanghai Partition of Locomotive Sports Association held broadcast callisthenics competition today], Xin tiyu, May 10, 1954, 12.49 ‘Gongqingtuan shanghaishi guoying shanghai diwu mianfangzhichang weiyuanhui guanyu jinyibu gonggu guangbo ticao kaizhan hongqi jingsai de baogao’ [Report from the Communist Youth League committee of the Shanghai State-Owned No. 5 Cotton Mill on further consolidating broadcast callisthenics and developing red flag competitions], February 2, 1953, B126-1-32-15, SMA.50 ‘Shanghai fenqu guangbo ticao hongqi jingsai zongjie’ [Summary report from the Shanghai Partition on broadcast callisthenics red flag competitions], September 7, 1953.51 Interview with Hu Luming, March 16, 2021.52 ‘Gongqingtuan shanghaishi guoying shanghai diwu mianfangzhichang weiyuanhui guanyu jinyibu gonggu guangbo ticao kaizhan hongqi jingsai de baogao’, B126-1-32-15, SMA.53 ‘Wei shenme yao juxing gezhong geyang de bisai’ [Why did we hold all kinds of competitions?], Xinmin wanbao, November 13, 1954, 4.54 The 1957 Rectification Movement was launched by the CCP Central Committee to attack the so-called bureaucratism (guanliao zhuyi), factionalism (zongpai zhuyi) and subjectivism (zhuguan zhuyi) among Party members. Besides self-inspection, the CCP motivated the general public to express opinions about them.55 Founded in 1952, the SSC was affiliated to the PRC central government and had taken charge of national tiyu undertakings ever since, replacing the role of the Youth League and the ACSF.56 Dong Shouyi, ‘Tiyu gongzuo zhong de jige wenti’ [Several problems with tiyu work], Xin tiyu, July 1957, 15–6.57 Cao Jianchun, ‘Youpai weishenme cong qunzhong tiyu fangmian xiang dang jingong’ [Why did the rightists attack the Party through mass tiyu], Xin tiyu, September 1957, 3–4.58 Wu Jiangping, ‘Weishenme shuo shi “yingxing haozhao”: Bo Dong Shouyi guanyu guangbo ticao de miulun’ [Why did he call it ‘mandatory mobilization’? Rebutting Dong Shouyi’s fallacies on broadcast callisthenics], Xin tiyu, September 1957, 9.59 The Anti-Rightist Movement (1957–1959) was a backlash against the Rectification Movement, during which Mao Zedong retreated and the CCP began a crackdown against numerous critics, who were attacked as ‘rightists’. The downfalls of Dong, Huang and Zhang were also related to their non-red experiences before 1949. Dong used to work for the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) and was the coach of the ROC national basketball team. Huang and Zhang used to be senior KMT military leaders. The ‘rightist’ accusations against them were revoked in 1958, but they were again persecuted during the Cultural Revolution.60 Bernstein, ‘Introduction’, 15–17. Mainly initiated by Mao, the Great Leap Forward was a social, political and economic campaign from 1958 to 1962, during which the CCP attempted to accelerate towards full communism within a short period of time.61 Ibid., 8.62 Walder, China under Mao, 97–9.63 See Grant, Physical Culture and Sport in Soviet Society, 159–70.64 ‘Guojia tiwei dangzu guanyu 1960nian quanguo tiyu gongzuo huiyi qingkuang de baogao (zhailu)’ [Report from the SSC Party Committee on the 1960 National Tiyu Work Conference (excerpt)], February 17, 1960, in Tiyu yundong wenjian xuanbian, 1949–1981, [Selected sport documents, 1949–1981], compiled by Guojia tiwei zhengce yanjiushi (Beijing: Renmin tiyu chubanshe, 1982), 50.65 ‘Shanghaishi 1958 nian “quanmin tiyu huodong zhou” gongzuo zongjie’ [Work summary of Shanghai 1958 ‘week of mass tiyu activities’], June 19, 1958, B126-1-375-8, SMA.66 Rong Gaotang, ‘Chengfengpolang, zhengqu tiyu dayuejin’ [Brave the winds and waves and strive for the Great Leap Forward in tiyu], Xinmin wanbao, February 10, 1958, 3.67 ‘Shanghaishi tiyu yundong weiyuanhui guanyu guangbo ticao bisai banfa (cao’an)’ [The SMSC’s regulations for broadcast callisthenics competition (draft)], 1958, B126-1-359-39, SMA.68 Bernstein, ‘Introduction’, 15–6.69 Yu, ‘“Labor Is Glorious”’, 244.70 Shuman, ‘The Politics of Socialist Athletics in the People’s Republic of China’, 273–83.71 Mao Zedong, ‘Tiyu zhi yanjiu’ [A study of physical education], in Collected Works of Mao Tse-tung (1917–1949) (Arlington, VA: Joint Publications Research Service, 1978), 11.72 ‘Guojia tiwei guanyu guanche zhongyang guanyu weisheng gongzuo de zhishi jingshen, dali kaizhan qunzhong tiyu huodong de yijian’ [The SSC’s opinions on implementing the spirit of the Central Committee’s directions on public health work and intensively developing mass tiyu], April 25, 1960, in Tiyu yundong wenjian xuanbian, 1949–1981, 296.73 For the story of Mao and swimming, see Poon Shuk-wah, ‘Embodying Maoism: The Swimming Craze, the Mao Cult, and Body Politics in Communist China, 1950s–1970s.’ Modern Asian Studies 53, no. 5 (2019): 1450–85.74 Joel Andreas, Rise of the Red Engineers: The Cultural Revolution and the Origins of China’s New Class (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2009), 61; Walder, China under Mao, 97–9; Meisner, Mao’s China and After, 118–9.75 See Schmalzer, ‘Red and Expert’, in Afterlives of Chinese Communism, ed. Sorace, Franceschini and Loubere, 215–20; Schmalzer, The People’s Peking Man, 115–28.76 The term ‘mass science’ was also generally referred to as ‘mass science research’ (qunzhong kexue yanjiu), ‘science of mass character’ (qunzhongxing kexue) or ‘masses doing science’ (qunzhong ban kexue) in Mao-era official narratives. See Schmalzer, The People’s Peking Man, 114.77 For studies of these topics, see Yi Lianyuan, ‘“qunzhong kexue” yu xinzhongguo jishu zhengzhi shuping’ [‘Mass science’ and the techno-politics of new China: A critical review], Kaifang shidai, no. 5 (2019): 63–75.78 ‘Da yuejin de jianbing’ [Pioneers of the GLF], Xin tiyu, May 1958, 3–4.79 Chen Zhonghuang, ‘Kuanggong chushen de yundong jianjiang: Dong Yaolu’ [Dong Yaolu: From a miner to an excellent athlete], Xin tiyu, May 1959, 14–5.80 Chen Zhonghua, ‘Tigao changpao sudu he naili de fangfa’ [Methods for improving speed and endurance in long-distance running], Xin tiyu, June 1959, 26–7.81 ‘Beijing tiyu xueyuan kaizhan jishu geming’ [Beijing University of Sports carried out a technical revolution], Xin tiyu, March 1959, 19.82 ‘Jiji caiqu cuoshi, jiasu tigao chengji’ [Actively take measures to accelerate improving performance], Xin tiyu, March 1959, 5.83 Riordan, Sport in Soviet Society, 146–7.84 Jia Yurui and Liu Junxiang, ‘Jieshao yizhong gongren ticao’ [Introducing a worker callisthenics], Xin tiyu, May 1951, 29.85 ‘Gongren jin yanjiao chuangzao le zhanwu zuoye ticao’ [A worker called Jin Yanjiao created railway operation callisthenics], Xin tiyu, July 1951, 23–4.86 Shanghaishi tiyu yundong weiyuanhui qunzhong tiyu chu ed., Shengchancao jieshao [Introduction to production callisthenics] (Shanghai: Shanghai wenhua chubanshe, 1958), 10.87 Ibid., 1–7.88 ‘Shengchancao zhuozhu gongxiao, shi fangzhi tixie dali tuiguang’ [The Municipal Textile Sports Commission is vigorously promoting production callisthenics that has achieved brilliant effects], Xinmin wanbao, April 22, 1958, 3.89 See also the stories of some famous scientists at that time in Sigrid Schmalzer, Red Revolution, Green Revolution: Scientific Farming in Socialist China (Chicago & London: The University of Chicago Press, 2016), 47–99; Peter Neushul and Zuoyue Wang, ‘Between the Devil and the Deep Sea: C.K. Tseng, Mariculture, and the Politics of Science in Modern China’, Isis 91, no. 1 (2000): 59–88.90 Yuan Gu, ‘Shenru gongchang fudao, dagao qunzhong tiyu: tiyuan shisheng yu gongren hebian shengchancao’ [Go deep into the factory to instruct and extensively develop mass tiyu: Teachers and students of Shanghai University of Sports co-created production callisthenics with workers], Xinmin wanbao, June 8, 1960, 3; Interview with Wang Yuan, March 28, 202191 ‘Beijing tiyu xueyuan shisheng shuqi dagao qunzhong tiyu’ [Teachers and students of Beijing University of Sports extensively develop mass tiyu during the summer vacation], Xinmin wanbao, August 26, 1958, 3.92 ‘Yiliao tiyu ke zhi yaosuan beiteng, yiwu renyuan zai gangtiechang shiyan xiaoguo lianghao’ [Medical tiyu can cure pain in the back: Medical staff achieved good experimental effects in the iron–steel factory], Wenhui bao, March 30, 1959, 2.93 ‘Diyi tao gongren cao: fangzhi gongren cao’ [The first edition of worker callisthenics: Textile worker callisthenics], Xinmin wanbao, March 6, 1960, 3; ‘Guojia tiwei jintian gongbu gangtie gongren cao he meikuang gongren cao’ [The SSC carried out ironworker callisthenics and coal miner callisthenics today], Xinmin wanbao, April 27, 1960, 3.94 A typical example is the barefoot doctor system in the countryside, where medical resources were scarce. See Chunjuan Nancy Wei, ‘Barefoot Doctors: The Legacy of Chairman Mao’s Healthcare’, in Mr Science and Chairman Mao’s Cultural Revolution: Science and Technology in Modern China, ed. Chunjuan Nancy Wei and Darryl E. Brock (Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, 2013), 251–80.95 ‘Guojia tiwei dangzu guanyu 1960nian quanguo tiyu gongzuo huiyi qingkuang de baogao (zhailu)’, 51–2.96 Yi Bing, ‘Tiyu wei shengchan fuwu de hao bangyang’ [A good example of tiyu serving production], Xinmin wanbao, September 27, 1960, 3.97 ‘Shenti yue lian yue qiang, shengchan tiantian xiangshang’ [Body is increasingly strong, production is increasingly active], Wenhui bao, May 30, 1960, 1.98 Interview with Hu Luming, March 16, 2021.99 ‘Shenti yue lian yue qiang, shengchan tiantian xiangshang’, 1.100 Guo Xiubin, ‘Gongren shengchancao huicao biaoyan jinwan gei jiang’ [The award ceremony for the workers’ production callisthenics demonstration will be held tonight], Xinmin wanbao, December 3, 1963, 2.101 Wang Zaiming, ‘Putuo qu juxing fansha gongren shengchan cao bisai’ [Putuo District held a foundry production callisthenics competition], Xinmin wanbao, November 5, 1965, 2.102 ‘Zhendui butong laodong tedian, kaizhan ticao huodong, Shanghai bianzhi yibai duo tao shengchancao’ [Developing callisthenics according to different labour characteristics: Shanghai has created more than 100 production callisthenics], Wenhui bao, August 16, 1960, 2.103 Xu Changchun, ‘Zhigong guangbo cao huicao he shengchan cao biaoyan jin kaishi’ [Workers’ broadcast callisthenics demonstration and production callisthenics performance start today], Xinmin wanbao, November 5, 1965, 2.104 Schmalzer, Red Revolution, Green Revolution, 25; Miriam Gross, Farewell to the God of Plague: Chairman Mao’s Campaign to Deworm China (Oakland, California: University of California Press, 2016), 10–1; Gross further studied how mass science facilitated the integration of techno-bureaucratic system with grassroots cadres and leaders.105 The proclaimed goal of the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), a socio-political campaign launched by Mao, was to eliminate capitalist and traditional remnants from society.106 Guojia tiwei hongse xuanchuanyuan, ed., Mao zhuxi yulucao huibian [Compilation of Chairman Mao’s quotation callisthenics], 1968, 9.107 Cheng Shigang, ‘Wenge yulucao de “chulong” jingguo’ [The creation of quotation callisthenics during the Cultural Revolution], Wenshi bolan, no. 3 (2008):56–8108 ‘Shanghaishi geming weiyuanhui wenjiaozu guanyu Shanghaishi tiyu geming weiyuanhui qingshaonian guangbo ticao jixu shibian de qingshi baogao’ [Instruction from the cultural and educational group of the Shanghai municipal revolutionary committee concerning the SMSC revolutionary committee’s request for continuing to design teenager callisthenics], July 4, 1970, B244-3-226-35, SMA.109 ‘Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun Shanghaishi tiyu xitong junshi jieguan xiaozu guanyu yaoqiu shending xinbian gongjian guangbo ticao de qingshi baogao’ [Request for instruction from the People’s Liberation Army’s military takeover group of the Shanghai tiyu system on examining and approving new work-time broadcast callisthenics], February 16, 1971, B244-3-321-49, SMA.110 ‘Dali tuiguang guangbo ticao jianxing quanmin jianshen xingdong: guojia tiyu zongju juzhang gou zhongwen zai jiankang zhongguo xingdong (2019–2030) qidong yishi shang de changyi’ [Vigorously promote broadcast callisthenics and practise national fitness programme: Proposal of Director Gou Zhongwen of the General Administration of Sport of China at the opening ceremony of Healthy China Initiative (2019-2030)], August 7, 2019, https://www.sport.gov.cn/qts/n4992/c921203/content.html (accessed July 18, 2023). The General Administration of Sport is the successor of the SSC since 1998.111 For example, the General Administration of Sport held a nationwide online broadcast callisthenics competition during the COVID-19 pandemic. See ‘Guanyu kaizhan “jiankang zhongguo wo xingdong” quanguo guangbo ticao gongjian cao yunbisai he huodong de tongzhi’ [Notification on holding the “I join Healthy China Initiative” national broadcast callisthenics and work-break callisthenics online competition and activity], January 11, 2021, https://www.sport.gov.cn/qts/n4986/c975805/content.html (accessed July 18, 2023).112 For instance, physical educators of Qiongshan Middle School in Hai’nan Province combined calisthenics with local ethnic minority folk dance. See ‘Zuimei kejian cao xiuchu zuixuan minzu feng’ [The most beautiful class-break calisthenics shows the most dazzling ethnic style], Hai’nan ribao, April 6, 2021, 8.Additional informationNotes on contributorsYiyang WuYiyang Wu is a lecturer at the School of Humanities and Social Science, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Shenzhen). He obtained his PhD in the Chinese University of Hong Kong and is interested in studying modern Chinese history.","PeriodicalId":47491,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of the History of Sport","volume":"11 4","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.8000,"publicationDate":"2023-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":"0","resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":null,"PeriodicalName":"International Journal of the History of Sport","FirstCategoryId":"1085","ListUrlMain":"https://doi.org/10.1080/09523367.2023.2274048","RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":null,"EPubDate":"","PubModel":"","JCR":"Q1","JCRName":"HISTORY","Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0

Abstract

AbstractAfter the establishment of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) promoted ‘mass sports and physical culture’ (qunzhong tiyu) to justify its political claims and serve socialist construction. The relative ease of promoting its easily amendable forms and collective spirit earned mass callisthenics a distinctive role in Maoist physical culture. Much energy went into the distinctive creation of what became Mao-era China’s (1949-1976) two most pervasive and significantly symbolic forms of mass callisthenics: broadcast callisthenics (guangbo ticao) and production callisthenics (shengchan cao). However, this development was inundated with twists and turns for the CCP, sports leaders and experts, and ordinary participants due to the Party’s ambivalent egalitarian politics, which relied heavily on mass mobilization and revered proletarian expertise, reflecting its complicated and divided interpretation of the Soviet model and its recollection of its own revolutionary legacy. Through an analysis of abundant central and local materials, this article tells the unheeded story of mass callisthenics, which was a miniature of the contested anti-elitism movements of Mao-era China.Keywords: Mass callisthenicsMaoist egalitarian politicsthe Chinese Communist Party (CCP)physical education professionalsthe working class Disclosure StatementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).Notes1 ‘Fulaishan jiedao houshiyao xiaoxue shisheng lexiang dijiutao guangbo ticao’[Students and teachers of Houshiyao primary school at Fulaishan subdistrict enjoy doing the ninth edition of broadcast callisthenics], November 12, 2019, https://www.meipian.cn/2ihxo5hb (accessed May 18, 2022).2 In Chinese, the term ‘tiyu’ covers all the English definitions of ‘sports’, ‘physical culture’ and ‘physical education’. Thus, I leave it untranslated in most parts of my writing and use these English terms in specific contexts. In this article, the term ‘mass tiyu’ (qunzhong tiyu) refers to sports and physical culture programmes that were designed for the general public. By contrast, the term ‘elite sports’ refers to programmes that aimed to cultivate specialist athletes.3 For callisthenics in modern China, see Andrew D. Morris, Marrow of the Nation: A History of Sport and Physical Culture in Republican China (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2004); Hwang Jinlin, Lishi, shenti, guojia: jindai zhongguo de shenti xing-cheng, 1895–1937 [History, body and the state: The formation of the body in modern China, 1895–1937] (Beijing: Xinxing chubanshe, 2006), 45–86; Robert Culp, ‘Rethinking Governmentality: Training, Cultivation, and Cultural Citizenship in Nationalist China’, The Journal of Asian Studies 65, no. 3 (2006): 529–48; Nicolas Schillinger, The Body and Military Masculinity in Late Qing and Early Republican China: The Art of Governing Soldiers (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2016). For callisthenics in socialist bloc countries, see James Riordan, Sport in Soviet Society: Development of Sport and Physical Education in Russia and the USSR (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977); Susan Grant, Physical Culture and Sport in Soviet Society: Propaganda, Acculturation, and Transformation in the 1920s and 1930s (New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2014); David L. Hoffman, ‘Bodies of Knowledge: Physical Culture and the New Soviet Man’, in Language and Revolution: Making Modern Political Identities, ed. Igal Halfin (London and Portland: Frank Cass, 2002), 228–42; Molly Wilkinson Johnson, Training Socialist Citizens: Sports and the State in East Germany (Leiden: Brill, 2008); Gyongyi Szabo Foldesi, ‘From Mass Sport to the “Sport for All” Movement in the “Socialist” Countries in Eastern Europe’, International Review for the Sociology of Sport 26, no. 4 (1991):239–534 Michel Bonnin, The Lost Generation: The Rustication of China’s Educated Youth (1968–1980) (Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 2013), 13–8.5 See Mark Selden, China in Revolution: The Yanan Way Revisited (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1995), 249–54; Miin-ling Yu, ‘“Labor Is Glorious”: Model Laborers in the PRC’, in China Learns from the Soviet Union, eds. Thomas P. Bernstein and Hua-yu Li (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2010), 231–58.6 Sigrid Schmalzer, ‘Red and Expert’, in Afterlives of Chinese Communism: Political Concepts from Mao to Xi, ed. Christian Sorace, Ivan Franceschini and Nicholas Loubere (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 2019), 215–20.7 John M. Hoberman, Sport and Political Ideology (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1984), 219.8 Dong-Jhy Hwang and Li-Ke Chang. ‘Sport, Maoism and the Beijing Olympics: One Century One Ideology’, China Perspectives, no. 1 (2008): 4–17.9 Morris, Marrow of the Nation, 30–7, 105–12, 128–39. However, military callisthenics (bingcao) also faced many social criticisms for its barbarism (ibid., 36–41, 48–52). ‘Trophyism’ and the ‘athlete system’ were terms used by social critics in modern China, respectively criticizing those who participated in sports allegedly only for winning trophies and those who developed tiyu for the sake of selecting and cultivating elite athletes.10 Wang Zengming and Zeng Biao, eds., Zhongguo hongse tiyushi [History of Chinese red tiyu] (Xi’an: Xibei daxue chubanshe, 2013), 62–5, 125–8.11 Morris, Marrow of the Nation, 127. The nationalist government refers to the government that governed the Republic of China (ROC) from 1925 to 1948, led by the Kuomintang (KMT or Chinese Nationalist Party).12 See Andrew G. Walder, China under Mao: A Revolution Derailed (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017), 39; Maurice Meisner, Mao’s China and After: A History of the People’s Republic (New York: Free Press, 1999), 31–54.13 See Yu, ‘“Labor Is Glorious”’, 234–5; Selden, China in Revolution.14 Wang and Zeng, Zhongguo hongse tiyushi, 194–220.15 Thomas P. Bernstein, ‘Introduction: The Complexities of Learning from the Soviet Union’, in China Learns from the Soviet Union, ed. Bernstein and Li, 8. Bernstein categorized three Soviet models and used the term ‘revolutionary Stalinism’ to describe the Soviet ‘socialist offensive’ of 1929–1934.16 Susan Brownell, Training the Body for China: Sports in the Moral Order of the People’s Republic (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 19.17 Grace Yen Shen, ‘Scientism in the Twentieth Century’, in Modern Chinese Religion II, 1850–2015, ed. Vincent Goossaert, Jan Kiely and John Lagerway (Leiden & Boston: Brill, 2014), 91–137.18 Timothy Cheek, The Intellectual in Modern Chinese History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 155; Eddy U, Creating the Intellectual: Chinese Communism and the Rise of a Classification (Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2019), 42–67; Meisner, Mao’s China and After, 44; Sigrid Schmalzer, The People’s Peking Man: Popular Science and Human Identity in Twentieth-Century China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 113–5.19 Bernstein, ‘Introduction’, 8. Technological elitism was a major feature of what Bernstein defined as ‘bureaucratic and middle-class Stalinism’, as the account that follows unveils.20 Meisner, Mao’s China and After, 54.21 See Wu Shaozu, ed., Zhonghua renmin gongheguo tiyushi, 1949–1998 [Sports history of the People’s Republic of China, 1949–1998] (Beijing: Zhongguo shuji chubanshe, 1999), 1–6; Amanda Shuman, ‘The Politics of Socialist Athletics in the People’s Republic of China, 1949–1966’ (PhD diss., University of California, Santa Cruz, 2014), 63–72; Liang Shen and Hong Fan, ‘Sport, Ideology and Nation-Building in the Early Years of the People’s Republic of China’, The International Journal of the History of Sport 38, no. 17 (2021): 1774–90.22 Riordan, Sport in Soviet Society, 101–2.23 For the history of Chinese group callisthenics, see Huang Kuanrou, Mao Xuexin and Wu Xin, ‘The Historical Development of Chinese Group Callisthenics’, The International Journal of the History of Sport 28, no. 7 (2011): 1072–85.24 ‘Beijingshi diyijie renmin tiyudahui choubei gongzuo zongjie’ [Summary of the preparation work for the First Beijing People’s Sports Meeting], Xin tiyu, July 1950, 30.25 Feng Wenbin, ‘Guanyu kaizhan renmin tiyu de jige wenti’ [Several issues on the development of people’s tiyu], Xin tiyu, September 1950, 4.26 The Chinese New Democratic Youth League (renamed the Chinese Communist Youth League in 1957) supervised national tiyu in the early 1950s. The ACSF, officially founded in 1952, was the PRC’s first national tiyu organization.27 Feng, ‘Guanyu kaizhan renmin tiyu de jige wenti’, 4.28 Riordan, Sport in Soviet Society, 137.29 ‘Guangbo ticao: bange shiji de quanmin jianshen jiyi’ [Broadcast callisthenics: Half a century of memories of mass physical exercises], Beijing ribao, July 15, 2008, 1430 ‘Guanyu tuiguang guangbo ticao de lianhe tongzhi’ [Joint notification on promoting broadcast callisthenics], November 24, 1951, in Zhonghua renmin gongheguo tiyu yundong wenjian huibian (diyi ji) [PRC sports documents (compilation 1)] (Beijing: Renmin tiyu chubanshe, 1957), 10.31 Hao Keqiang, ‘Zuoticao shi aiguo qingnian meitian bibukeshao de huodong’ [Doing broadcast callisthenics is an indispensable activity for patriotic youth], Xin tiyu, December 1951, 13.32 Wu Xue, ‘68sui de guangbo ticao: quanmin yundong de “qimeng”’[68 year-old broadcast callisthenics: the ‘torchbearer’ of mass physical exercises], Xinmin zhoukan, November 20, 2019, 38.33 See Shuman, ‘The Politics of Socialist Athletics in the People’s Republic of China’, 72–7.34 Chen Zhenhua, Lu Enchun and Li Shiming, Zhongguo ticao yundong shi [History of Chinese callisthenics and gymnastics] (Wuhan: Wuhan chubanshe, 1990), 605.35 Yang Wei, ‘Wo de muqin yanglie’ [My mother Yang Lie], in Chao’an wenshi (di shiyi ji) [Historical accounts of the Chao’an County (vol. 11)], ed. Chao’an xian zhengxie wenshi weiyuanhui (Chao’an, 2007), 100–2.36 ‘Guangbo ticao: bange shiji de quanmin jianshen jiyi’, 14.37 Pei Shunyuan and Zhang Xiangchao, ‘Guomian wuchang dianxing shiyan de guangbocao’ [Typical experiments of broadcast callisthenics in the No. 5 State-Owned Cotton Mill], Xinmin wanbao, September 2, 1953, 4.38 Dong Chengliang and Jin Zhaojun, ‘Guangbo ticao dui zengjin shenti jiankang de jiazhi’ [The values of broadcast callisthenics for physical health], Xinmin wanbao, January 30, 1953, 3.39 Wu Weili, ‘Huxi gongren julebu juban guangbocao xuexiban’ [Huxi workers’ club held broadcast callisthenics study classes], Xinmin wanbao, January 16, 1953, 3.40 ‘Guangbo ticao: bange shiji de quanmin jianshen jiyi’, 14.41 ‘Guanyu zai quanguo xiaoxue zhong tuixing shaonian guangbo ticao de lianhe zhishi’ [Joint instruction on promoting juvenile broadcast callisthenics in primary schools nationwide], August, 1954, in Zhonghua renmin gongheguo tiyu yundong wenjian huibian (diyi ji), 80–1.42 The period 1953–1957 was the PRC’s transition to socialism. Largely modelled on revolutionary Stalinism, the PRC began its rapid industrialization and economic collectivization.43 Yu, ‘“Labor Is Glorious”’, 235–6.44 Many studies have analyzed the internal and external politics of the PRC’s elite competitive sports during the Mao years. For some comprehensive accounts, see Xu Guoqi, Olympic Dreams: China and Sports, 1895–2008 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008); Fan Hong and Lu Zhouxiang, The Politicisation of Sport in Modern China: Communists and Champions (London: Routledge, 2014); Shuman, ‘The Politics of Socialist Athletics in the People’s Republic of China, 1949–1966’; Aurélien Boucher and Steven Pope, ‘Without a Red Leader’s Fan: A Connected History of the Emergence of Table Tennis as China’s National Sport’, Asian Journal of Sport History & Culture 1, no. 1 (2022): 40–58.45 Shuman, ‘The Politics of Socialist Athletics in the People’s Republic of China, 1949–1966’, 252–546 Zhang Xiangchao, ‘Zhengque renshi juban yundong jingsaihui de yiyi’ [Properly understand the meaning of holding sports competition meetings], Xinmin wanbao, October 17, 1953, 4.47 ‘Shanghaishi tiyu yundong weiyuanhui guanyu shanghaishi kaizhan guangbo ticao de qingkuang baogao’ [Report from the SMSC preparation committee on situations for promoting broadcast callisthenics in Shanghai], November 1953, B126-1-52-20, Shanghai Municipal Archives, Shanghai, China (hereafter SMA).48 ‘Huochetou tiyu xiehui shanghai fenqu jinri juxing guangbo ticao bisai’ [Shanghai Partition of Locomotive Sports Association held broadcast callisthenics competition today], Xin tiyu, May 10, 1954, 12.49 ‘Gongqingtuan shanghaishi guoying shanghai diwu mianfangzhichang weiyuanhui guanyu jinyibu gonggu guangbo ticao kaizhan hongqi jingsai de baogao’ [Report from the Communist Youth League committee of the Shanghai State-Owned No. 5 Cotton Mill on further consolidating broadcast callisthenics and developing red flag competitions], February 2, 1953, B126-1-32-15, SMA.50 ‘Shanghai fenqu guangbo ticao hongqi jingsai zongjie’ [Summary report from the Shanghai Partition on broadcast callisthenics red flag competitions], September 7, 1953.51 Interview with Hu Luming, March 16, 2021.52 ‘Gongqingtuan shanghaishi guoying shanghai diwu mianfangzhichang weiyuanhui guanyu jinyibu gonggu guangbo ticao kaizhan hongqi jingsai de baogao’, B126-1-32-15, SMA.53 ‘Wei shenme yao juxing gezhong geyang de bisai’ [Why did we hold all kinds of competitions?], Xinmin wanbao, November 13, 1954, 4.54 The 1957 Rectification Movement was launched by the CCP Central Committee to attack the so-called bureaucratism (guanliao zhuyi), factionalism (zongpai zhuyi) and subjectivism (zhuguan zhuyi) among Party members. Besides self-inspection, the CCP motivated the general public to express opinions about them.55 Founded in 1952, the SSC was affiliated to the PRC central government and had taken charge of national tiyu undertakings ever since, replacing the role of the Youth League and the ACSF.56 Dong Shouyi, ‘Tiyu gongzuo zhong de jige wenti’ [Several problems with tiyu work], Xin tiyu, July 1957, 15–6.57 Cao Jianchun, ‘Youpai weishenme cong qunzhong tiyu fangmian xiang dang jingong’ [Why did the rightists attack the Party through mass tiyu], Xin tiyu, September 1957, 3–4.58 Wu Jiangping, ‘Weishenme shuo shi “yingxing haozhao”: Bo Dong Shouyi guanyu guangbo ticao de miulun’ [Why did he call it ‘mandatory mobilization’? Rebutting Dong Shouyi’s fallacies on broadcast callisthenics], Xin tiyu, September 1957, 9.59 The Anti-Rightist Movement (1957–1959) was a backlash against the Rectification Movement, during which Mao Zedong retreated and the CCP began a crackdown against numerous critics, who were attacked as ‘rightists’. The downfalls of Dong, Huang and Zhang were also related to their non-red experiences before 1949. Dong used to work for the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) and was the coach of the ROC national basketball team. Huang and Zhang used to be senior KMT military leaders. The ‘rightist’ accusations against them were revoked in 1958, but they were again persecuted during the Cultural Revolution.60 Bernstein, ‘Introduction’, 15–17. Mainly initiated by Mao, the Great Leap Forward was a social, political and economic campaign from 1958 to 1962, during which the CCP attempted to accelerate towards full communism within a short period of time.61 Ibid., 8.62 Walder, China under Mao, 97–9.63 See Grant, Physical Culture and Sport in Soviet Society, 159–70.64 ‘Guojia tiwei dangzu guanyu 1960nian quanguo tiyu gongzuo huiyi qingkuang de baogao (zhailu)’ [Report from the SSC Party Committee on the 1960 National Tiyu Work Conference (excerpt)], February 17, 1960, in Tiyu yundong wenjian xuanbian, 1949–1981, [Selected sport documents, 1949–1981], compiled by Guojia tiwei zhengce yanjiushi (Beijing: Renmin tiyu chubanshe, 1982), 50.65 ‘Shanghaishi 1958 nian “quanmin tiyu huodong zhou” gongzuo zongjie’ [Work summary of Shanghai 1958 ‘week of mass tiyu activities’], June 19, 1958, B126-1-375-8, SMA.66 Rong Gaotang, ‘Chengfengpolang, zhengqu tiyu dayuejin’ [Brave the winds and waves and strive for the Great Leap Forward in tiyu], Xinmin wanbao, February 10, 1958, 3.67 ‘Shanghaishi tiyu yundong weiyuanhui guanyu guangbo ticao bisai banfa (cao’an)’ [The SMSC’s regulations for broadcast callisthenics competition (draft)], 1958, B126-1-359-39, SMA.68 Bernstein, ‘Introduction’, 15–6.69 Yu, ‘“Labor Is Glorious”’, 244.70 Shuman, ‘The Politics of Socialist Athletics in the People’s Republic of China’, 273–83.71 Mao Zedong, ‘Tiyu zhi yanjiu’ [A study of physical education], in Collected Works of Mao Tse-tung (1917–1949) (Arlington, VA: Joint Publications Research Service, 1978), 11.72 ‘Guojia tiwei guanyu guanche zhongyang guanyu weisheng gongzuo de zhishi jingshen, dali kaizhan qunzhong tiyu huodong de yijian’ [The SSC’s opinions on implementing the spirit of the Central Committee’s directions on public health work and intensively developing mass tiyu], April 25, 1960, in Tiyu yundong wenjian xuanbian, 1949–1981, 296.73 For the story of Mao and swimming, see Poon Shuk-wah, ‘Embodying Maoism: The Swimming Craze, the Mao Cult, and Body Politics in Communist China, 1950s–1970s.’ Modern Asian Studies 53, no. 5 (2019): 1450–85.74 Joel Andreas, Rise of the Red Engineers: The Cultural Revolution and the Origins of China’s New Class (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2009), 61; Walder, China under Mao, 97–9; Meisner, Mao’s China and After, 118–9.75 See Schmalzer, ‘Red and Expert’, in Afterlives of Chinese Communism, ed. Sorace, Franceschini and Loubere, 215–20; Schmalzer, The People’s Peking Man, 115–28.76 The term ‘mass science’ was also generally referred to as ‘mass science research’ (qunzhong kexue yanjiu), ‘science of mass character’ (qunzhongxing kexue) or ‘masses doing science’ (qunzhong ban kexue) in Mao-era official narratives. See Schmalzer, The People’s Peking Man, 114.77 For studies of these topics, see Yi Lianyuan, ‘“qunzhong kexue” yu xinzhongguo jishu zhengzhi shuping’ [‘Mass science’ and the techno-politics of new China: A critical review], Kaifang shidai, no. 5 (2019): 63–75.78 ‘Da yuejin de jianbing’ [Pioneers of the GLF], Xin tiyu, May 1958, 3–4.79 Chen Zhonghuang, ‘Kuanggong chushen de yundong jianjiang: Dong Yaolu’ [Dong Yaolu: From a miner to an excellent athlete], Xin tiyu, May 1959, 14–5.80 Chen Zhonghua, ‘Tigao changpao sudu he naili de fangfa’ [Methods for improving speed and endurance in long-distance running], Xin tiyu, June 1959, 26–7.81 ‘Beijing tiyu xueyuan kaizhan jishu geming’ [Beijing University of Sports carried out a technical revolution], Xin tiyu, March 1959, 19.82 ‘Jiji caiqu cuoshi, jiasu tigao chengji’ [Actively take measures to accelerate improving performance], Xin tiyu, March 1959, 5.83 Riordan, Sport in Soviet Society, 146–7.84 Jia Yurui and Liu Junxiang, ‘Jieshao yizhong gongren ticao’ [Introducing a worker callisthenics], Xin tiyu, May 1951, 29.85 ‘Gongren jin yanjiao chuangzao le zhanwu zuoye ticao’ [A worker called Jin Yanjiao created railway operation callisthenics], Xin tiyu, July 1951, 23–4.86 Shanghaishi tiyu yundong weiyuanhui qunzhong tiyu chu ed., Shengchancao jieshao [Introduction to production callisthenics] (Shanghai: Shanghai wenhua chubanshe, 1958), 10.87 Ibid., 1–7.88 ‘Shengchancao zhuozhu gongxiao, shi fangzhi tixie dali tuiguang’ [The Municipal Textile Sports Commission is vigorously promoting production callisthenics that has achieved brilliant effects], Xinmin wanbao, April 22, 1958, 3.89 See also the stories of some famous scientists at that time in Sigrid Schmalzer, Red Revolution, Green Revolution: Scientific Farming in Socialist China (Chicago & London: The University of Chicago Press, 2016), 47–99; Peter Neushul and Zuoyue Wang, ‘Between the Devil and the Deep Sea: C.K. Tseng, Mariculture, and the Politics of Science in Modern China’, Isis 91, no. 1 (2000): 59–88.90 Yuan Gu, ‘Shenru gongchang fudao, dagao qunzhong tiyu: tiyuan shisheng yu gongren hebian shengchancao’ [Go deep into the factory to instruct and extensively develop mass tiyu: Teachers and students of Shanghai University of Sports co-created production callisthenics with workers], Xinmin wanbao, June 8, 1960, 3; Interview with Wang Yuan, March 28, 202191 ‘Beijing tiyu xueyuan shisheng shuqi dagao qunzhong tiyu’ [Teachers and students of Beijing University of Sports extensively develop mass tiyu during the summer vacation], Xinmin wanbao, August 26, 1958, 3.92 ‘Yiliao tiyu ke zhi yaosuan beiteng, yiwu renyuan zai gangtiechang shiyan xiaoguo lianghao’ [Medical tiyu can cure pain in the back: Medical staff achieved good experimental effects in the iron–steel factory], Wenhui bao, March 30, 1959, 2.93 ‘Diyi tao gongren cao: fangzhi gongren cao’ [The first edition of worker callisthenics: Textile worker callisthenics], Xinmin wanbao, March 6, 1960, 3; ‘Guojia tiwei jintian gongbu gangtie gongren cao he meikuang gongren cao’ [The SSC carried out ironworker callisthenics and coal miner callisthenics today], Xinmin wanbao, April 27, 1960, 3.94 A typical example is the barefoot doctor system in the countryside, where medical resources were scarce. See Chunjuan Nancy Wei, ‘Barefoot Doctors: The Legacy of Chairman Mao’s Healthcare’, in Mr Science and Chairman Mao’s Cultural Revolution: Science and Technology in Modern China, ed. Chunjuan Nancy Wei and Darryl E. Brock (Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, 2013), 251–80.95 ‘Guojia tiwei dangzu guanyu 1960nian quanguo tiyu gongzuo huiyi qingkuang de baogao (zhailu)’, 51–2.96 Yi Bing, ‘Tiyu wei shengchan fuwu de hao bangyang’ [A good example of tiyu serving production], Xinmin wanbao, September 27, 1960, 3.97 ‘Shenti yue lian yue qiang, shengchan tiantian xiangshang’ [Body is increasingly strong, production is increasingly active], Wenhui bao, May 30, 1960, 1.98 Interview with Hu Luming, March 16, 2021.99 ‘Shenti yue lian yue qiang, shengchan tiantian xiangshang’, 1.100 Guo Xiubin, ‘Gongren shengchancao huicao biaoyan jinwan gei jiang’ [The award ceremony for the workers’ production callisthenics demonstration will be held tonight], Xinmin wanbao, December 3, 1963, 2.101 Wang Zaiming, ‘Putuo qu juxing fansha gongren shengchan cao bisai’ [Putuo District held a foundry production callisthenics competition], Xinmin wanbao, November 5, 1965, 2.102 ‘Zhendui butong laodong tedian, kaizhan ticao huodong, Shanghai bianzhi yibai duo tao shengchancao’ [Developing callisthenics according to different labour characteristics: Shanghai has created more than 100 production callisthenics], Wenhui bao, August 16, 1960, 2.103 Xu Changchun, ‘Zhigong guangbo cao huicao he shengchan cao biaoyan jin kaishi’ [Workers’ broadcast callisthenics demonstration and production callisthenics performance start today], Xinmin wanbao, November 5, 1965, 2.104 Schmalzer, Red Revolution, Green Revolution, 25; Miriam Gross, Farewell to the God of Plague: Chairman Mao’s Campaign to Deworm China (Oakland, California: University of California Press, 2016), 10–1; Gross further studied how mass science facilitated the integration of techno-bureaucratic system with grassroots cadres and leaders.105 The proclaimed goal of the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), a socio-political campaign launched by Mao, was to eliminate capitalist and traditional remnants from society.106 Guojia tiwei hongse xuanchuanyuan, ed., Mao zhuxi yulucao huibian [Compilation of Chairman Mao’s quotation callisthenics], 1968, 9.107 Cheng Shigang, ‘Wenge yulucao de “chulong” jingguo’ [The creation of quotation callisthenics during the Cultural Revolution], Wenshi bolan, no. 3 (2008):56–8108 ‘Shanghaishi geming weiyuanhui wenjiaozu guanyu Shanghaishi tiyu geming weiyuanhui qingshaonian guangbo ticao jixu shibian de qingshi baogao’ [Instruction from the cultural and educational group of the Shanghai municipal revolutionary committee concerning the SMSC revolutionary committee’s request for continuing to design teenager callisthenics], July 4, 1970, B244-3-226-35, SMA.109 ‘Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun Shanghaishi tiyu xitong junshi jieguan xiaozu guanyu yaoqiu shending xinbian gongjian guangbo ticao de qingshi baogao’ [Request for instruction from the People’s Liberation Army’s military takeover group of the Shanghai tiyu system on examining and approving new work-time broadcast callisthenics], February 16, 1971, B244-3-321-49, SMA.110 ‘Dali tuiguang guangbo ticao jianxing quanmin jianshen xingdong: guojia tiyu zongju juzhang gou zhongwen zai jiankang zhongguo xingdong (2019–2030) qidong yishi shang de changyi’ [Vigorously promote broadcast callisthenics and practise national fitness programme: Proposal of Director Gou Zhongwen of the General Administration of Sport of China at the opening ceremony of Healthy China Initiative (2019-2030)], August 7, 2019, https://www.sport.gov.cn/qts/n4992/c921203/content.html (accessed July 18, 2023). The General Administration of Sport is the successor of the SSC since 1998.111 For example, the General Administration of Sport held a nationwide online broadcast callisthenics competition during the COVID-19 pandemic. See ‘Guanyu kaizhan “jiankang zhongguo wo xingdong” quanguo guangbo ticao gongjian cao yunbisai he huodong de tongzhi’ [Notification on holding the “I join Healthy China Initiative” national broadcast callisthenics and work-break callisthenics online competition and activity], January 11, 2021, https://www.sport.gov.cn/qts/n4986/c975805/content.html (accessed July 18, 2023).112 For instance, physical educators of Qiongshan Middle School in Hai’nan Province combined calisthenics with local ethnic minority folk dance. See ‘Zuimei kejian cao xiuchu zuixuan minzu feng’ [The most beautiful class-break calisthenics shows the most dazzling ethnic style], Hai’nan ribao, April 6, 2021, 8.Additional informationNotes on contributorsYiyang WuYiyang Wu is a lecturer at the School of Humanities and Social Science, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Shenzhen). He obtained his PhD in the Chinese University of Hong Kong and is interested in studying modern Chinese history.
群众动员、非竞争和无产阶级专长:1949-1976年早期中华人民共和国的群众健美操和有争议的平等主义政治
摘要1949年中华人民共和国成立后,中国共产党大力推行“群众性体育运动”,以证明其政治主张的正当性,为社会主义建设服务。大众健美操的形式和集体精神相对容易推广,这使它在毛主义体育文化中占有独特的地位。在毛时代的中国(1949-1976),大量的精力投入到两种最普遍和最具象征意义的大众健美操的独特创作中:广播健美操和制作健美操。然而,由于党的矛盾的平等主义政治,这一发展对中共、体育领导人和专家以及普通参与者来说充满了曲折和转折,这种政治严重依赖于群众动员和尊重无产阶级的专业知识,反映了它对苏联模式的复杂和分裂的解释,以及它对自己革命遗产的回忆。通过对大量中央和地方资料的分析,本文讲述了一个被忽视的群众性健美操故事,这是毛时代中国有争议的反精英运动的一个缩影。关键词:群众性健美操毛主义平等主义政治中国共产党体育工作者工人阶级披露声明作者未报告潜在的利益冲突。注1《福来山街道后石窑小雪乐生乐香dijiutao guangbo ticao》,2019年11月12日,https://www.meipian.cn/2ihxo5hb(访问日期:2022年5月18日)在中文中,“体育”一词涵盖了英语中“运动”、“体育文化”和“体育教育”的所有定义。因此,在我的大部分写作中,我没有翻译它,而是在特定的上下文中使用这些英语术语。在本文中,“群众性体育”一词指的是为大众设计的体育运动项目。相比之下,“精英运动”一词指的是旨在培养专业运动员的项目关于现代中国的健美操,见安德鲁·d·莫里斯:《民族精髓:民国时期中国的体育运动史》(加州伯克利:加州大学出版社,2004);黄金林、李石、沈提、郭佳:《历史、身体与国家:近代中国身体的形成,1895-1937》(北京:新兴社会,2006),45-86;罗伯特·卡尔普,“重新思考治理:民族主义中国的训练、培养和文化公民”,《亚洲研究杂志》,第65期。3 (2006): 529-48;尼古拉斯·施林格,《清末民初中国的身体与军事男子气概:治兵艺术》(兰哈姆医学博士:列克星敦图书,2016)。关于社会主义集团国家的健美操,见詹姆斯·赖尔丹,苏联社会的体育运动:俄罗斯和苏联体育运动的发展(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1977);苏珊·格兰特:《苏联社会的体育文化和运动:20世纪20年代和30年代的宣传、文化适应和转型》(纽约:劳特利奇,泰勒和弗朗西斯集团,2014年);大卫·l·霍夫曼,“知识的身体:体育文化和新的苏联人”,在语言和革命:制造现代政治身份,编辑,伊加尔·哈芬(伦敦和波特兰:弗兰克卡斯,2002),228-42;莫莉·威尔金森·约翰逊:《培养社会主义公民:东德的体育与国家》(莱顿:布里尔出版社,2008年);Gyongyi Szabo Foldesi,“从大众体育到东欧“社会主义”国家的“全民体育”运动”,《国际体育社会学评论》,第26期。米歇尔·博宁:《迷惘的一代:中国知青年的乡村化(1968-1980)》(香港:中文大学出版社,2013),13-8.5见马克·塞尔登:《革命中的中国:重新审视延安之路》(马萨诸塞州剑桥:哈佛大学出版社,1995),249-54;余敏玲,“劳动是光荣的”:中华人民共和国的劳动模范”,《中国学习苏联》,主编。《体育、毛主义和北京奥运会:同一个世纪同一个意识形态》,《中国透视》,第1期。[j] .《中华民族的骨髓》,2008年第1期,第4 - 17页。然而,军事健美操(兵操)也因其野蛮而面临许多社会批评(同上,36 - 41,48 - 52)。 “奖杯主义”和“运动员制度”是近代中国社会评论家使用的术语,分别批评那些据称只是为了赢得奖杯而参加体育运动的人和那些为了选拔和培养优秀运动员而发展体育运动的人王增明、曾彪编。[刘志强,中国红色体体史[m] .西安:西北大学图书馆,2013,62-5,125-8.11 .]12 .国民政府是指由国民党领导的,从1925年到1948年统治中华民国的政府参见Andrew G. Walder,《毛领导下的中国:一场脱轨的革命》(马萨诸塞州剑桥:哈佛大学出版社,2017),第39页;莫里斯·迈斯纳:《毛时代的中国及其后:中华人民共和国的历史》(纽约:自由出版社,1999),31 - 54页。托马斯·p·伯恩斯坦,“导论:向苏联学习的复杂性”,《中国向苏联学习》,伯恩斯坦和李主编,8。伯恩斯坦将三种苏联模式分类,并使用“革命斯大林主义”一词来描述苏联1929-1934.16的“社会主义攻势”苏珊·布朗内尔,为中国训练身体:人民共和国道德秩序中的体育(芝加哥:芝加哥大学出版社,1995),19.17格雷斯·颜申,“二十世纪的科学主义”,现代中国宗教II, 1850-2015,编辑。文森特·古萨特,简·基利和约翰·拉格威(莱顿和波士顿):蒂莫西·齐克:《中国近代史上的知识分子》(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,2015),155;Eddy U,《创造知识分子:中国共产主义与一种分类的兴起》(加州奥克兰:加州大学出版社,2019),42-67页;迈斯纳,《毛的中国及其后》,44页;西格丽德·施马尔泽,《人民的北京人:二十世纪中国的大众科学与人类身份》(芝加哥:芝加哥大学出版社,2008),113-5.19伯恩斯坦,《导论》,8。技术精英主义是伯恩斯坦所定义的“官僚主义和中产阶级斯大林主义”的主要特征,如下所述参见吴绍祖主编,《中华人民共和国体育史,1949-1998》(北京:中国体育杂志,1999),第1-6页;阿曼达·舒曼,《1949-1966年中华人民共和国的社会主义体育政治》(博士论文)。,加州大学圣克鲁兹分校,2014),63-72;梁申、洪帆:《中华人民共和国建国初期的体育、意识形态与国家建设》,《国际体育史杂志》第38期。关于中国团体健美操的历史,见黄宽柔、毛学新、吴昕,《中国团体健美操的历史发展》,《国际体育史杂志》第28期,第22 - 22页。《北京第一届人民运动会筹备工作综述》,1950年7月,30.25冯文斌,《关于发展人民体育运动的几个问题》,1950年9月,4.26中国新民主主义青年团(1957年更名为中国共产主义青年团)在20世纪50年代初监督全国体育运动。ACSF于1952年正式成立,是中华人民共和国第一个全国性的体育组织冯,《电视健美操》,《苏联社会的体育》,137.29《广播健美操:电视健美操》《群众性体育运动半个世纪的记忆》,北京日报,2008年7月15日,1430年《关于推广广播健美操的联合通知》,1951年11月24日,《中华人民共和国体育文献(汇编一)》(北京:《群众体育运动的“火炬手”》,《新民周刊》,2019年11月20日,38.33见舒曼:《中华人民共和国社会主义体育政治》,72-7.34陈振华、卢恩春、李世明,《中国健美操和体操史》(武汉:武汉图书馆社,1990),605.35杨伟,《我的母亲杨烈》,载《潮安文史》(第11卷),编。 89参见Sigrid Schmalzer,《红色革命,绿色革命:社会主义中国的科学农业》(芝加哥和伦敦:芝加哥大学出版社,2016),47-99页,另见当时一些著名科学家的故事;Peter Neushul,王作月,“魔鬼与深海之间:曾志强、海水养殖与近代中国的科学政治”,《中国科学》,第91期,第2期。袁谷,《深入厂里指导广泛开展群众体操:上海体育学院师生与工人共同创作生产健美操》,《新民晚报》,1960年6月8日,第3期;访王源,2012.3.28《北京体育学院师生暑假期间广泛开展群众性体育锻炼》,《新民晚报》,1958年8月26日,《义乌体育学院师生体育锻炼可治背痛》;医务人员在钢铁厂取得了良好的实验效果],文慧报,1959年3月30日,2.93《工人健美操:纺织工人健美操》第一版,新民万报,1960年3月6日,第3期;《国民办今日铁工健美操和煤矿工人健美操》,《新民晚报》,1960年4月27日,1994年3月4日,“赤脚医生制度”在医疗资源匮乏的农村是一个典型的例子。参见魏春娟,《赤脚医生:毛主席医疗的遗产》,载于《科学先生与毛主席的文化大革命:现代中国的科学技术》,魏春娟和Darryl E. Brock主编(Lanham, Maryland)。列克星星出版社,2013),251-80.95《国家铁卫当族官语》,51-2.96易兵,《铁卫生产产的一个好例子》,新民万报,1960年9月27日,3.97《身体越来越强壮,生产越来越活跃》,文汇报,1960年5月30日,1998年1月16日胡鲁明访2021.99《职工生产健美操示范颁奖典礼将于今晚举行》,100郭秀斌,《职工生产健美操示范颁奖典礼将于今晚举行》,1963年12月3日新民万宝,1963年2月3日王再明,《普陀区铸造生产健美操大赛》,1965年11月5日新民万宝,1965年2月2日《镇公市劳动舞台》,根据不同的劳动特点发展健美操;上海已经创作了100多个制作健美操],文惠报,1960年8月16日,103徐长春,《工人广播健美操示范和制作健美操表演从今天开始》,新民万报,1965年11月5日,104施马尔泽,红色革命,绿色革命,25;米里亚姆·格罗斯:《告别瘟疫之神:毛主席的中国除虫运动》(加州奥克兰:加州大学出版社,2016),第10-1页;Gross进一步研究了大众科学如何促进技术官僚体系与基层干部和领导的整合文化大革命(1966-1976)是毛发起的一场社会政治运动,其宣称的目标是从社会中消灭资本主义和传统残余程世刚:《文革时期语录健美操的创作》,《文革时期语录健美操的创作》,《文史博兰》,1968年9月。《上海市革命委员会文教组关于上海市革命委员会继续设计青少年健美操要求的批示》,1970年7月4日,b224 -3-226-35 .(2008): 56-8108。[109]《中国人民解放军上海体操系统新工作时间广播健美操审批批示的请示》,1971年2月16日,B244-3-321-49 .] 《大力推广广播健美操,践行全民健身计划(2019-2030)》国家体育总局郭忠文局长在“健康中国倡议(2019-2030)”开幕式上的提案],2019年8月7日,https://www.sport.gov.cn/qts/n4992/c921203/content.html(2023年7月18日访问)。国家体育总局自1998年起更名为国家体育总局。例如,在新冠肺炎疫情期间,国家体育总局举办了全国网络广播健美操比赛。参见《关于举办“我加入健康中国行动”全国广播健美操和工间健美操网络竞赛活动的通知》,2021年1月11日https://www.sport.gov.cn/qts/n4986/c975805/content.html(2023年7月18日)例如,海南省琼山中学的体育教师将健美操与当地少数民族民间舞蹈相结合。见《最美的课间健美操展现最耀眼的民族风采》,《海南日报》2021年4月6日第8期。作者简介:吴义阳,香港中文大学(深圳)人文社会科学学院讲师。他在香港中文大学获得博士学位,对研究中国近代史感兴趣。
本文章由计算机程序翻译,如有差异,请以英文原文为准。
求助全文
约1分钟内获得全文 求助全文
来源期刊
CiteScore
0.80
自引率
33.30%
发文量
85
×
引用
GB/T 7714-2015
复制
MLA
复制
APA
复制
导出至
BibTeX EndNote RefMan NoteFirst NoteExpress
×
提示
您的信息不完整,为了账户安全,请先补充。
现在去补充
×
提示
您因"违规操作"
具体请查看互助需知
我知道了
×
提示
确定
请完成安全验证×
copy
已复制链接
快去分享给好友吧!
我知道了
右上角分享
点击右上角分享
0
联系我们:info@booksci.cn Book学术提供免费学术资源搜索服务,方便国内外学者检索中英文文献。致力于提供最便捷和优质的服务体验。 Copyright © 2023 布克学术 All rights reserved.
京ICP备2023020795号-1
ghs 京公网安备 11010802042870号
Book学术文献互助
Book学术文献互助群
群 号:481959085
Book学术官方微信