Thyroid organoids: Advances and applications.

Organoids are derived from stem cells under three-dimensional culture conditions through self-assembly, and they can recapitulate the structural and functional characteristics of organs in vivo during culture. Organoids can be generated from both normal and malignant tissues. Those derived from normal tissues are widely used in the field of regenerative medicine. Meanwhile, tumour-derived organoids retain the phenotypic heterogeneity and atypia of the primary tumour, thereby providing a reliable in vitro model for the study of tumour pathogenesis and treatment. The thyroid gland is one of the most important endocrine organs regulating the body's energy metabolism and growth; however, it is also associated with a high incidence of malignancy. Organoid is an effective tool for thyroid research. Thyroid tumour-derived organoids can inherit the histopathological properties of primary tumours, and thyroid tissue-derived organoids can form follicular structures and secrete thyroid hormones. The above characteristics of organoids provide a reliable way to study the mechanism of thyroid genesis and tumour development in vitro. In this review, we focus on current knowledge and strategies for the establishment of thyroid organoids in thyroid regeneration and tumour research aiming to increase our understanding of the pathogenesis of thyroid tumours and the regenerative treatment of patients with hypothyroidism.