Worlds apart? Atheist, agnostic, and humanist worldviews in three European countries.

Secular worldviews are widespread and growing. What are the differences between secular self-identi fi cations? This study examined if self-identi fi ed atheists, agnostics, and humanists differed systematically with regard to worldview dimensions. Cultural and gender effects were examined as secondary study objectives. A total of 1,814nonreligiousindividualsfromGermany,Austria,andtheNetherlandscompletedquestionnairesmeasuringdegreesofatheism,agnosticism,humanism,personalresponsibility,scientism,economicmaterialism,skepticism,dogmatism,existentialsearch,andconcealmentanddisclosureofconvictions.Asexpected,self-identi fi ed atheists,agnostics,andhumanistsdifferedsubstantiallyintheirworldviewpositionsandcommunication.Acrossallthreecountries,atheistsendorsedatheismtoaveryhighdegree.Comparedtoagnosticsandhumanists,they were more convinced of scientism and less of skepticism. Agnostics scored highest in agnosticism and skepticism and lowest in dogmatism. Humanists mostly held distinguishable middle positions between atheists and agnostics. Analyses of cultural differences supported the hypothesis that more religious contexts give rise to secular countermovements: In (more religious/less secular) Austria and Germany, atheism, scientism, personal responsibility, and disclosure were more pronounced than in the (secular) Netherlands, where agnosticism and skepticismweremoreprevalent.Regardinggender,menscoredhigheronatheismandscientism,andwomenon skepticism. The fi ndings suggest a continuum from decided to open secularity, two clearly distinct positions. Decided (atheist, scientist, disclosing) secularity was more common among self-identi fi ed atheists, men, and in morereligiouscontexts.Open(agnostic,skeptic)secularitywasmoreprominentamongself-identi fi edagnostics, women, and in the more secular culture. Self-identi fi ed humanists occupied a middle position.