Supplemental Material for Chinese Canadians’ Experiences of the Dual Pandemics of COVID-19 and Racism: Implications for Identity, Negative Emotion, and Anti-Racism Incident Reporting

Many Chinese Canadians (CCs) have experienced increased racism and xenophobia since the beginning of the Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic. This study focused on how this rise of anti-Chinese discrimination, in addition to the threats posed by the pandemic itself, affects not only CCs' well-being, but also their Chinese and Canadian identities. We surveyed 874 CC adults from across Canada, M (age) = 42.09;47.7% females;628 foreign-born, first-generation (G1) and 246 Canadian-born, second or later generation (G2). The reported rates of discriminatory experiences were alarming: More than half of the respondents reported that they had been treated with less respect because of their ethnicity (G1: 60.6%;G2: 56.8%), and over a third reported that they had been personally threatened or intimidated (G1: 35.2%;G2: 39.8%). Generational status moderated CCs' pandemic experiences, such that G1 CCs perceived more health, financial, and cultural threats due to the pandemic, but G2 CCs reported more personal and group discrimination. Perceived discrimination was associated with CCs' negative affect even after controlling for pandemic threats. The type of discrimination had different implications for heritage and mainstream cultural identities. For both groups, personal discrimination was negatively associated with Canadian identity, whereas group discrimination was positively associated with Chinese identity. Only about 10% of CCs who experienced harassment reported their encounters to authorities or on social media;CCs' perceptions that others saw them as perpetual foreigners undermined their reporting of harassment. The findings' implications for acculturation, identity, anti-racism strategies, and empowerment in reporting harassment are discussed. Public Significance Statement COVID-19 pandemic poses various threats for all Canadians, but Chinese Canadians have also faced increased racism. For example, the present study found that two-thirds of respondents had been treated disrespectfully and over a third were openly threatened or harassed during the pandemic. As a result of this discrimination, not only is Chinese Canadians' physical and psychological well-being undermined, but also their sense of belonging to Canadian society. Generational status affected the relative impact of pandemic-related challenges, such that foreign-born Chinese Canadians experienced more health, financial, and cultural threats, whereas Canadian-born Chinese perceived more personal and group discrimination. As the prejudice and discrimination against Chinese Canadians are likely to continue, there are ongoing challenges for research and the community to work together in combating racism, encouraging anti-racism reporting, and supporting Chinese and other Asian Canadians' resilience and recovery from the pandemic.