Does the size of tracing actions affect learning outcomes?

ABSTRACT Objective Explicit instructions to students to use the index finger to trace out specified elements of mathematics worked examples have been shown to improve mathematics learning outcomes; however, there is limited research on whether the magnitude of tracing actions impacts these outcomes. Method Using an experimental design, 34 adults were randomly allocated to an experimental (tracing out larger ellipses) or control (tracing out smaller ellipses) condition. We hypothesised explicit instructions to make larger tracing actions on the surface of worked examples on a mental mathematics skill would support learning more than making smaller tracing actions. Video analysis established the two conditions differed in distance traced in the expected direction. Results Contrary to hypotheses, making larger tracing actions did not result in better post-lesson problem-solving. Instead, an aptitude–treatment interaction was established between multiplication expertise and experimental condition, with less expert students in particular solving more similar post-test problems after making smaller tracing actions. This interaction may reflect a split-attention effect generated by experimental materials. Conclusions Findings suggest there needs to be close consideration of how instructions to trace lesson elements are designed, so that visual processing following the index finger supports rather than hinders learning. Directions for future research are discussed. KEY POINTS What is already known about this topic: Worked examples are an effective learning format for novices to learn to solve problems. Making tracing actions on the surface of worked examples helps novices learn. Theory and research suggest larger actions may enhance learning. What this topic adds: Smaller tracing actions were more effective than larger tracing actions, particularly for less expert learners. This study establishes the importance of learner expertise in testing alternative tracing-based instructional designs. Instructional designers need to balance the design of traceable lesson elements with potential effects on visual processing.