磷,硒,碲和硫

Barbara Malczewska‐Toth
{"title":"磷,硒,碲和硫","authors":"Barbara Malczewska‐Toth","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX044.PUB2","DOIUrl":null,"url":null,"abstract":"Phosphorus and sulfur are elements 15 and 16 in the periodic chart and selenium and tellurium are in the same group as sulfur. Sulfur was not covered in the previous edition, but sulfur and its compounds have been added in this edition because of the importance of sulfur compounds. \n \n \n \nElemental phosphorus is produced as a by-product or intermediate in the production of phosphate fertilizer. Environmental contamination with phosphorus results from its manufacture into phosphorus compounds and during the transport and use of these compounds. In the manufacturing process, phosphate rock containing the mineral apatite (tricalcium phosphate) is heated and elementary phosphorus is liberated as a vapor. Phosphorus is used to manufacture explosives, incendiaries, smoke bombs, chemicals, rodenticides, phosphor bronze, and fertilizer. The use of phosphate fertilizers results in increased nutrients in fresh water and is a major source of environmental pollution. \n \n \n \nPhosphorus exists in several allotropic forms: white (or yellow), red, and black (or violet). The last is of no industrial importance. Elemental yellow phosphorus extracted from bone was used to make “strike anywhere” matches. In 1845, the occupational disease “phossy jaw,” a jaw bone necrosis, was recognized in workers who manufactured such matches. A prohibitive tax imposed in 1912 on matches made from yellow phosphorus led to the use of less toxic materials, red phosphorus and phosphorus sesquisulfide. The United States appears to have lagged behind European countries in that signatories of the Berne Convention of 1906 agreed not to manufacture or import matches made with yellow phosphorus. Occasional injuries continued to result from using yellow phosphorus to manufacture fireworks until 1926, when an agreement was reached to discontinue the use of yellow phosphorus for this purpose. \n \n \n \nThe world production of elemental phosphorus exceeds 1,000,000 metric ton. It is manufactured either in electric or blast furnaces. Both depend on silica as a flux for the calcium present in the phosphate rock. Nearly all of the phosphorus produced is converted into phosphoric acid or other phosphorus compounds. \n \n \n \nRed phosphorus does not ignite spontaneously but may be ignited by friction, static electricity, heating, or oxidizing agents. Handling it in an aqueous solution helps prevent fires. \n \n \n \nPhosphorus (white yellow) can be absorbed through the skin, respiratory tract, and gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Experimental investigations on rats show the highest retention 5 days after oral administration in the liver, skeletal muscle, GI tract, blood, and kidney. Phosphorus is converted to phosphates in the body. Urinary excretion, the chief mode of elimination, is largely in the form of organic and inorganic phosphates. \n \n \n \nSelenium (Se), a nonmetallic element of the sulfur group, is widely distributed in nature. It is obtained along with tellurium as a by-product of metal ore refining, chiefly from copper. About 16 ton is mined a year globally. \n \n \n \nBecause selenium is present in fossil fuels, up to 90% of the selenium content in ambient air is emitted during their combustion. Air pollution concentrations averaged from 0.38 ng/m3 in remote areas to 13 ng/m3 in urban areas. The mass medium diameter was 0.92 mm. The worldwide emissions of 10,000 ton/year from natural sources exceed the atmospheric emissions from anthropogenic sources (5100 ton). However, 41,000 ton is emitted into the aquatic ecosystems. The largest contributors are electric power generating plants that produce 18,000 ton; manufacturing processes account for 12,000 ton. \n \n \n \nMost of the world's selenium today is provided by recovery from anode muds of electrolytic copper refineries. Selenium is recovered by roasting these muds with soda or sulfuric acid or by melting them with a soda and niter. \n \n \n \nOne of the important uses of selenium is in photoelectric cells. \n \n \n \nToxic gases and vapors may be released in a fire involving selenium. Selenium can react violently with chromic oxide (CrO3), lithium silicon (Li6Si2), nitric acid, nitrogen trichloride, oxygen, potassium bromate, silver bromate, and fluorine. \n \n \n \nSelenium is an essential trace metal. Because of data suggesting that it may inhibit chemical carcinogenesis, it has been widely promoted as a dietary supplement. Selenium may replace sulfur and forms selenoproteins in plants and animal systems. It interacts with a wide variety of vitamins, xenobiotics, and sulfur-containing amino acids. Selenium reduces the toxicity of many metals such as mercury, cadmium, lead, silver, copper, and arsenic. \n \n \n \nSelenium and most of its compounds are readily absorbed by oral intake or by breathing. Dermal exposure generally does not result in elevated selenium blood concentration. After absorption, high concentrations are found in the liver and kidney. In humans, dimethylselenide is formed and may account for the garlic odor of the breath. \n \n \n \nIn farm animals (cattle, sheep, hogs, and horses), toxicity from intake of feed containing excessive selenium has resulted. \n \n \n \nElemental tellurium (Te) has some metallic properties, although it is classed as a nonmetal or metalloid. The name is derived from the Latin word for earth. Tellurium is occasionally found naturally, more often as telluride of gold, calaverite. The elemental form has a bright luster, is brittle, readily powders, and burns slowly in air. Tellurium exists in two allotropic forms, as a powder and in the hexagonal crystalline form (isomorphous) with gray selenium. The concentration in the earth's crust is about 0.002 ppm. It is recovered from anode muds during the refining of blister copper. It is also found in various sulfide ores along with selenium and is produced as a by-product of metal refineries. The United States, Canada, Peru, and Japan are the largest producers. \n \n \n \nTellurium's industrial applications include its use as a metallurgical additive to improve the characteristics of alloys of copper, steel, lead, and bronze. \n \n \n \nElemental tellurium is poorly absorbed, but its more soluble compounds may undergo some oral absorption. Soluble tellurium can be absorbed through the skin, although ingestion or inhalation of fumes presents the greatest industrial hazard. A metallic taste in the mouth may result from excessive absorption. The characteristic sign of tellurium absorption is the garlic-like odor attributed to dimethyltelluride in the breath and sweat. This may persist for many days after exposure. Urinary and fecal (biliary) excretion also occurs. Urinary excretion is probably more important than respiratory excretion in eliminating absorbed tellurium. Tellurium is complexed to plasma proteins, and little is found in the red blood cells. In the nervous system, tellurium accumulates in the gray matter, not the white matter, when injected intracerebrally. The metal is found in phagocytic and ependymal cells and in lysosomes as fine needles. The whole-body retention model assumes a long half-life, based on tellurium dioxide. \n \n \n \nSulfur (S) occurs naturally as a yellow, water-insoluble solid. The name is from the Latin “sulphur.” Early Greek physicians mention sulfur and the fumes from burning sulfur in religious ceremonies. Sulfur constitutes about 0.053% of the earth's crust and occurs in two allotropic crystalline forms, rhombic and monoclinic. Below 96°C, only the rhombic form is stable. Large sedimentary deposits of almost pure sulfur are mined in Texas and Louisiana. Sulfur can be extracted from crude oil in the refining process, as well as from stack gases resulting from coal combustion. Sulfur occurs in fossil fuels and in metal (Fe, Pb) ores. Exposure may occur in numerous operations related to the mining and recovery of sulfur. The recovery of sulfur as a by-product accounts for a larger portion of the world's production than the mined mineral. Sulfur is one of the most important raw materials, particularly in the fertilizer industry. \n \n \n \nOrganic sulfur compounds occur in garlic, mustard, onions, and cabbage and are responsible for the odor of skunks. Sulfur occurs in living tissue and is part of some amino acids. Unlike many other inorganic elements, sulfur itself is relatively nontoxic. Sulfur and some of its salts have been used medicinally. The consumption of sulfur is a measure of national industrial development and economic activity. Sulfur is most often used as a chemical reagent, rather than as part of a finished product. \n \n \n \nExposure to sulfur particulates produces tracheobronchitis, characterized by cough, sore throat, chest pain, and lightheadedness. \n \n \nKeywords: \n \nphosphorus; \nselenium; \ntellurium; \nsulfur; \nselenium compounds; \nselenium compounds; \ntellurium compounds; \nsulfur compounds; \nphossy jaw; \nphosphorus poisoning; \nphosphoric acid; \nsulfides; \nchlorides; \nfluorides; \nsulfuric acid; \nsulfides; \nselenides","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0000,"publicationDate":"2012-01-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":"6","resultStr":"{\"title\":\"Phosphorus, Selenium, Tellurium, and Sulfur\",\"authors\":\"Barbara Malczewska‐Toth\",\"doi\":\"10.1002/0471435139.TOX044.PUB2\",\"DOIUrl\":null,\"url\":null,\"abstract\":\"Phosphorus and sulfur are elements 15 and 16 in the periodic chart and selenium and tellurium are in the same group as sulfur. Sulfur was not covered in the previous edition, but sulfur and its compounds have been added in this edition because of the importance of sulfur compounds. \\n \\n \\n \\nElemental phosphorus is produced as a by-product or intermediate in the production of phosphate fertilizer. Environmental contamination with phosphorus results from its manufacture into phosphorus compounds and during the transport and use of these compounds. In the manufacturing process, phosphate rock containing the mineral apatite (tricalcium phosphate) is heated and elementary phosphorus is liberated as a vapor. Phosphorus is used to manufacture explosives, incendiaries, smoke bombs, chemicals, rodenticides, phosphor bronze, and fertilizer. The use of phosphate fertilizers results in increased nutrients in fresh water and is a major source of environmental pollution. \\n \\n \\n \\nPhosphorus exists in several allotropic forms: white (or yellow), red, and black (or violet). The last is of no industrial importance. Elemental yellow phosphorus extracted from bone was used to make “strike anywhere” matches. In 1845, the occupational disease “phossy jaw,” a jaw bone necrosis, was recognized in workers who manufactured such matches. A prohibitive tax imposed in 1912 on matches made from yellow phosphorus led to the use of less toxic materials, red phosphorus and phosphorus sesquisulfide. The United States appears to have lagged behind European countries in that signatories of the Berne Convention of 1906 agreed not to manufacture or import matches made with yellow phosphorus. Occasional injuries continued to result from using yellow phosphorus to manufacture fireworks until 1926, when an agreement was reached to discontinue the use of yellow phosphorus for this purpose. \\n \\n \\n \\nThe world production of elemental phosphorus exceeds 1,000,000 metric ton. It is manufactured either in electric or blast furnaces. Both depend on silica as a flux for the calcium present in the phosphate rock. Nearly all of the phosphorus produced is converted into phosphoric acid or other phosphorus compounds. \\n \\n \\n \\nRed phosphorus does not ignite spontaneously but may be ignited by friction, static electricity, heating, or oxidizing agents. Handling it in an aqueous solution helps prevent fires. \\n \\n \\n \\nPhosphorus (white yellow) can be absorbed through the skin, respiratory tract, and gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Experimental investigations on rats show the highest retention 5 days after oral administration in the liver, skeletal muscle, GI tract, blood, and kidney. Phosphorus is converted to phosphates in the body. Urinary excretion, the chief mode of elimination, is largely in the form of organic and inorganic phosphates. \\n \\n \\n \\nSelenium (Se), a nonmetallic element of the sulfur group, is widely distributed in nature. It is obtained along with tellurium as a by-product of metal ore refining, chiefly from copper. About 16 ton is mined a year globally. \\n \\n \\n \\nBecause selenium is present in fossil fuels, up to 90% of the selenium content in ambient air is emitted during their combustion. Air pollution concentrations averaged from 0.38 ng/m3 in remote areas to 13 ng/m3 in urban areas. The mass medium diameter was 0.92 mm. The worldwide emissions of 10,000 ton/year from natural sources exceed the atmospheric emissions from anthropogenic sources (5100 ton). However, 41,000 ton is emitted into the aquatic ecosystems. The largest contributors are electric power generating plants that produce 18,000 ton; manufacturing processes account for 12,000 ton. \\n \\n \\n \\nMost of the world's selenium today is provided by recovery from anode muds of electrolytic copper refineries. Selenium is recovered by roasting these muds with soda or sulfuric acid or by melting them with a soda and niter. \\n \\n \\n \\nOne of the important uses of selenium is in photoelectric cells. \\n \\n \\n \\nToxic gases and vapors may be released in a fire involving selenium. Selenium can react violently with chromic oxide (CrO3), lithium silicon (Li6Si2), nitric acid, nitrogen trichloride, oxygen, potassium bromate, silver bromate, and fluorine. \\n \\n \\n \\nSelenium is an essential trace metal. Because of data suggesting that it may inhibit chemical carcinogenesis, it has been widely promoted as a dietary supplement. Selenium may replace sulfur and forms selenoproteins in plants and animal systems. It interacts with a wide variety of vitamins, xenobiotics, and sulfur-containing amino acids. Selenium reduces the toxicity of many metals such as mercury, cadmium, lead, silver, copper, and arsenic. \\n \\n \\n \\nSelenium and most of its compounds are readily absorbed by oral intake or by breathing. Dermal exposure generally does not result in elevated selenium blood concentration. After absorption, high concentrations are found in the liver and kidney. In humans, dimethylselenide is formed and may account for the garlic odor of the breath. \\n \\n \\n \\nIn farm animals (cattle, sheep, hogs, and horses), toxicity from intake of feed containing excessive selenium has resulted. \\n \\n \\n \\nElemental tellurium (Te) has some metallic properties, although it is classed as a nonmetal or metalloid. The name is derived from the Latin word for earth. Tellurium is occasionally found naturally, more often as telluride of gold, calaverite. The elemental form has a bright luster, is brittle, readily powders, and burns slowly in air. Tellurium exists in two allotropic forms, as a powder and in the hexagonal crystalline form (isomorphous) with gray selenium. The concentration in the earth's crust is about 0.002 ppm. It is recovered from anode muds during the refining of blister copper. It is also found in various sulfide ores along with selenium and is produced as a by-product of metal refineries. The United States, Canada, Peru, and Japan are the largest producers. \\n \\n \\n \\nTellurium's industrial applications include its use as a metallurgical additive to improve the characteristics of alloys of copper, steel, lead, and bronze. \\n \\n \\n \\nElemental tellurium is poorly absorbed, but its more soluble compounds may undergo some oral absorption. Soluble tellurium can be absorbed through the skin, although ingestion or inhalation of fumes presents the greatest industrial hazard. A metallic taste in the mouth may result from excessive absorption. The characteristic sign of tellurium absorption is the garlic-like odor attributed to dimethyltelluride in the breath and sweat. This may persist for many days after exposure. Urinary and fecal (biliary) excretion also occurs. Urinary excretion is probably more important than respiratory excretion in eliminating absorbed tellurium. Tellurium is complexed to plasma proteins, and little is found in the red blood cells. In the nervous system, tellurium accumulates in the gray matter, not the white matter, when injected intracerebrally. The metal is found in phagocytic and ependymal cells and in lysosomes as fine needles. The whole-body retention model assumes a long half-life, based on tellurium dioxide. \\n \\n \\n \\nSulfur (S) occurs naturally as a yellow, water-insoluble solid. The name is from the Latin “sulphur.” Early Greek physicians mention sulfur and the fumes from burning sulfur in religious ceremonies. 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引用次数: 6

摘要

磷和硫是元素周期表上的第15和16号元素,硒和碲与硫在同一族。在以前的版本中没有涉及硫,但由于硫化合物的重要性,在本版本中增加了硫及其化合物。元素磷是磷肥生产过程中的副产品或中间体。磷的环境污染源于其制造成磷化合物以及在这些化合物的运输和使用过程中。在制造过程中,含有磷灰石(磷酸三钙)的磷矿被加热,元素磷以蒸汽的形式释放出来。磷被用来制造炸药、燃烧弹、烟雾弹、化学品、灭鼠剂、磷青铜和肥料。磷肥的使用导致淡水中的养分增加,是环境污染的主要来源。磷以几种同素异形体存在:白色(或黄色)、红色和黑色(或紫色)。最后一点在工业上不重要。从骨头中提取的黄磷元素被用来制作“随处可打”的火柴。1845年,在制造火柴的工人身上发现了一种叫做“颚骨坏死”的职业病。1912年对用黄磷制成的火柴征收的禁酒税导致使用毒性较小的材料,红磷和倍半硫化磷。在1906年《伯尔尼公约》的签署国同意不生产或进口含黄磷的火柴这一点上,美国似乎落后于欧洲国家。在1926年之前,使用黄磷制造烟花仍会造成偶尔的伤害,直到1926年双方达成协议,不再为此目的使用黄磷。世界单质磷的产量超过100万公吨。它可以在电炉或鼓风炉中制造。两者都依赖于二氧化硅作为磷矿中钙的助熔剂。几乎所有产生的磷都转化为磷酸或其他含磷化合物。红磷不会自燃,但可能被摩擦、静电、加热或氧化剂点燃。在水溶液中处理有助于防止火灾。磷(白色黄色)可通过皮肤、呼吸道和胃肠道吸收。对大鼠的实验研究表明,口服后5天,其在肝脏、骨骼肌、胃肠道、血液和肾脏中的滞留量最高。磷在体内转化为磷酸盐。尿液排泄是主要的排泄方式,主要以有机和无机磷酸盐的形式排出。硒(Se)是一种硫族非金属元素,在自然界中分布广泛。它是与碲一起作为金属矿石提炼的副产品,主要是从铜中提炼出来的。全球每年开采约16吨。由于硒存在于化石燃料中,因此在燃烧过程中,环境空气中高达90%的硒含量被排放出来。空气污染浓度平均从偏远地区的0.38纳克/立方米到城市地区的13纳克/立方米。质粒直径为0.92 mm。全球自然源的排放量为1万吨/年,超过了人为源的大气排放量(5100吨)。然而,有4.1万吨被排放到水生生态系统中。最大的贡献者是发电量为1.8万吨的发电厂;制造工序占12000吨。当今世界上大部分的硒都是从电解铜精炼厂的阳极泥中回收的。硒是通过用苏打或硫酸烘烤这些泥或用苏打和硝酸熔化它们来回收的。硒的一个重要用途是用于光电池。在涉及硒的火灾中可能释放有毒气体和蒸汽。硒能与氧化铬(CrO3)、硅锂(Li6Si2)、硝酸、三氯化氮、氧、溴酸钾、溴酸银和氟发生剧烈反应。硒是一种必需的微量金属。由于有数据表明它可以抑制化学致癌作用,它已被广泛推广为一种膳食补充剂。硒可以在植物和动物系统中代替硫并形成硒蛋白。它与多种维生素、异种生物制剂和含硫氨基酸相互作用。硒可以降低许多金属的毒性,如汞、镉、铅、银、铜和砷。硒及其大部分化合物很容易通过口服或呼吸吸收。皮肤接触通常不会导致血硒浓度升高。吸收后,在肝脏和肾脏中发现高浓度。在人体中,二甲基硒的形成可能是呼吸中大蒜气味的原因。 在农场动物(牛、羊、猪和马)中,由于摄入含有过量硒的饲料而导致中毒。元素碲(Te)具有一些金属性质,尽管它被归类为非金属或类金属。这个名字来源于拉丁语中的“地球”。碲偶尔在自然界中被发现,更常见的形式是金的碲化物——钙钙石。单质具有明亮的光泽,易碎,易成粉末,在空气中燃烧缓慢。碲以两种同素异形体存在,一种是粉末,另一种是与灰色硒呈六方晶状(同形)。在地壳中的浓度约为0.002 ppm。它是在泡铜精炼过程中从阳极泥中回收的。它也与硒一起存在于各种硫化物矿石中,是金属精炼厂的副产品。美国、加拿大、秘鲁和日本是最大的生产国。碲的工业应用包括用作冶金添加剂,以改善铜、钢、铅和青铜合金的特性。元素碲吸收不良,但其较易溶的化合物可经口服吸收。可溶性碲可通过皮肤吸收,但摄入或吸入烟雾是最大的工业危害。口中有金属味可能是由于吸收过多造成的。碲吸收的特征标志是呼吸和汗液中二甲基碲化物引起的大蒜味。这种情况可能在接触后持续许多天。尿和粪(胆道)排泄也会发生。在消除吸收的碲方面,尿排泄可能比呼吸排泄更重要。碲与血浆蛋白结合,在红细胞中发现很少。在神经系统中,当注入脑内时,碲在灰质而不是白质中积累。这种金属存在于吞噬细胞和室管膜细胞以及溶酶体中,呈细针状。基于二氧化碲,全身保留模型假定半衰期很长。硫(S)是一种黄色的、不溶于水的固体。这个名字来自拉丁语“硫磺”。早期的希腊医生在宗教仪式上提到硫磺和硫磺燃烧产生的烟雾。硫约占地壳的0.053%,以两种同素异形体晶体形式存在,菱形和单斜晶。在96℃以下,只有菱形是稳定的。德克萨斯州和路易斯安那州开采了大量几乎纯硫的沉积层。硫可以在精炼过程中从原油中提取,也可以从煤燃烧产生的烟囱气体中提取。硫存在于化石燃料和金属(铁、铅)矿石中。在与硫的开采和回收有关的许多作业中都可能发生接触。作为副产品的硫的回收占世界产量的比例比开采的矿物要大。硫是最重要的原料之一,特别是在化肥工业中。有机硫化合物存在于大蒜、芥末、洋葱和卷心菜中,是臭鼬发出气味的原因。硫存在于活组织中,是一些氨基酸的组成部分。与许多其他无机元素不同,硫本身是相对无毒的。硫和它的一些盐类已被用作医药。硫的消耗量是衡量一个国家工业发展和经济活动的一个指标。硫通常用作化学试剂,而不是成品的一部分。接触硫微粒会导致气管支气管炎,其特征是咳嗽、喉咙痛、胸痛和头晕。关键词:磷;硒;碲;硫;硒化合物;硒化合物;碲化合物;硫化合物;磷的下巴;磷中毒;磷酸;硫化物;氯化物;氟化物;硫酸;硫化物;硒化物
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Phosphorus, Selenium, Tellurium, and Sulfur
Phosphorus and sulfur are elements 15 and 16 in the periodic chart and selenium and tellurium are in the same group as sulfur. Sulfur was not covered in the previous edition, but sulfur and its compounds have been added in this edition because of the importance of sulfur compounds. Elemental phosphorus is produced as a by-product or intermediate in the production of phosphate fertilizer. Environmental contamination with phosphorus results from its manufacture into phosphorus compounds and during the transport and use of these compounds. In the manufacturing process, phosphate rock containing the mineral apatite (tricalcium phosphate) is heated and elementary phosphorus is liberated as a vapor. Phosphorus is used to manufacture explosives, incendiaries, smoke bombs, chemicals, rodenticides, phosphor bronze, and fertilizer. The use of phosphate fertilizers results in increased nutrients in fresh water and is a major source of environmental pollution. Phosphorus exists in several allotropic forms: white (or yellow), red, and black (or violet). The last is of no industrial importance. Elemental yellow phosphorus extracted from bone was used to make “strike anywhere” matches. In 1845, the occupational disease “phossy jaw,” a jaw bone necrosis, was recognized in workers who manufactured such matches. A prohibitive tax imposed in 1912 on matches made from yellow phosphorus led to the use of less toxic materials, red phosphorus and phosphorus sesquisulfide. The United States appears to have lagged behind European countries in that signatories of the Berne Convention of 1906 agreed not to manufacture or import matches made with yellow phosphorus. Occasional injuries continued to result from using yellow phosphorus to manufacture fireworks until 1926, when an agreement was reached to discontinue the use of yellow phosphorus for this purpose. The world production of elemental phosphorus exceeds 1,000,000 metric ton. It is manufactured either in electric or blast furnaces. Both depend on silica as a flux for the calcium present in the phosphate rock. Nearly all of the phosphorus produced is converted into phosphoric acid or other phosphorus compounds. Red phosphorus does not ignite spontaneously but may be ignited by friction, static electricity, heating, or oxidizing agents. Handling it in an aqueous solution helps prevent fires. Phosphorus (white yellow) can be absorbed through the skin, respiratory tract, and gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Experimental investigations on rats show the highest retention 5 days after oral administration in the liver, skeletal muscle, GI tract, blood, and kidney. Phosphorus is converted to phosphates in the body. Urinary excretion, the chief mode of elimination, is largely in the form of organic and inorganic phosphates. Selenium (Se), a nonmetallic element of the sulfur group, is widely distributed in nature. It is obtained along with tellurium as a by-product of metal ore refining, chiefly from copper. About 16 ton is mined a year globally. Because selenium is present in fossil fuels, up to 90% of the selenium content in ambient air is emitted during their combustion. Air pollution concentrations averaged from 0.38 ng/m3 in remote areas to 13 ng/m3 in urban areas. The mass medium diameter was 0.92 mm. The worldwide emissions of 10,000 ton/year from natural sources exceed the atmospheric emissions from anthropogenic sources (5100 ton). However, 41,000 ton is emitted into the aquatic ecosystems. The largest contributors are electric power generating plants that produce 18,000 ton; manufacturing processes account for 12,000 ton. Most of the world's selenium today is provided by recovery from anode muds of electrolytic copper refineries. Selenium is recovered by roasting these muds with soda or sulfuric acid or by melting them with a soda and niter. One of the important uses of selenium is in photoelectric cells. Toxic gases and vapors may be released in a fire involving selenium. Selenium can react violently with chromic oxide (CrO3), lithium silicon (Li6Si2), nitric acid, nitrogen trichloride, oxygen, potassium bromate, silver bromate, and fluorine. Selenium is an essential trace metal. Because of data suggesting that it may inhibit chemical carcinogenesis, it has been widely promoted as a dietary supplement. Selenium may replace sulfur and forms selenoproteins in plants and animal systems. It interacts with a wide variety of vitamins, xenobiotics, and sulfur-containing amino acids. Selenium reduces the toxicity of many metals such as mercury, cadmium, lead, silver, copper, and arsenic. Selenium and most of its compounds are readily absorbed by oral intake or by breathing. Dermal exposure generally does not result in elevated selenium blood concentration. After absorption, high concentrations are found in the liver and kidney. In humans, dimethylselenide is formed and may account for the garlic odor of the breath. In farm animals (cattle, sheep, hogs, and horses), toxicity from intake of feed containing excessive selenium has resulted. Elemental tellurium (Te) has some metallic properties, although it is classed as a nonmetal or metalloid. The name is derived from the Latin word for earth. Tellurium is occasionally found naturally, more often as telluride of gold, calaverite. The elemental form has a bright luster, is brittle, readily powders, and burns slowly in air. Tellurium exists in two allotropic forms, as a powder and in the hexagonal crystalline form (isomorphous) with gray selenium. The concentration in the earth's crust is about 0.002 ppm. It is recovered from anode muds during the refining of blister copper. It is also found in various sulfide ores along with selenium and is produced as a by-product of metal refineries. The United States, Canada, Peru, and Japan are the largest producers. Tellurium's industrial applications include its use as a metallurgical additive to improve the characteristics of alloys of copper, steel, lead, and bronze. Elemental tellurium is poorly absorbed, but its more soluble compounds may undergo some oral absorption. Soluble tellurium can be absorbed through the skin, although ingestion or inhalation of fumes presents the greatest industrial hazard. A metallic taste in the mouth may result from excessive absorption. The characteristic sign of tellurium absorption is the garlic-like odor attributed to dimethyltelluride in the breath and sweat. This may persist for many days after exposure. Urinary and fecal (biliary) excretion also occurs. Urinary excretion is probably more important than respiratory excretion in eliminating absorbed tellurium. Tellurium is complexed to plasma proteins, and little is found in the red blood cells. In the nervous system, tellurium accumulates in the gray matter, not the white matter, when injected intracerebrally. The metal is found in phagocytic and ependymal cells and in lysosomes as fine needles. The whole-body retention model assumes a long half-life, based on tellurium dioxide. Sulfur (S) occurs naturally as a yellow, water-insoluble solid. The name is from the Latin “sulphur.” Early Greek physicians mention sulfur and the fumes from burning sulfur in religious ceremonies. Sulfur constitutes about 0.053% of the earth's crust and occurs in two allotropic crystalline forms, rhombic and monoclinic. Below 96°C, only the rhombic form is stable. Large sedimentary deposits of almost pure sulfur are mined in Texas and Louisiana. Sulfur can be extracted from crude oil in the refining process, as well as from stack gases resulting from coal combustion. Sulfur occurs in fossil fuels and in metal (Fe, Pb) ores. Exposure may occur in numerous operations related to the mining and recovery of sulfur. The recovery of sulfur as a by-product accounts for a larger portion of the world's production than the mined mineral. Sulfur is one of the most important raw materials, particularly in the fertilizer industry. Organic sulfur compounds occur in garlic, mustard, onions, and cabbage and are responsible for the odor of skunks. Sulfur occurs in living tissue and is part of some amino acids. Unlike many other inorganic elements, sulfur itself is relatively nontoxic. Sulfur and some of its salts have been used medicinally. The consumption of sulfur is a measure of national industrial development and economic activity. Sulfur is most often used as a chemical reagent, rather than as part of a finished product. Exposure to sulfur particulates produces tracheobronchitis, characterized by cough, sore throat, chest pain, and lightheadedness. Keywords: phosphorus; selenium; tellurium; sulfur; selenium compounds; selenium compounds; tellurium compounds; sulfur compounds; phossy jaw; phosphorus poisoning; phosphoric acid; sulfides; chlorides; fluorides; sulfuric acid; sulfides; selenides
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