Altruism and the hypothesis of meta-selection in human evolution.

According to the meta-selection hypothesis, which postulates a special kind of group selection, organized and cohesive human groups became higher-level breeders. These higher-level breeders had selective power to manipulate their members by a rewards-costs system of social exchange in such a way that altruism beyond reciprocity, which otherwise would be a liability, became a potential fitness advantage for those who were able to strike a balance between altruistic attitudes resulting from meta-selection and self-interest resulting from natural selection. The relationship among non-kin members within a group became more similar to that among kin members vis-à-vis altruism beyond reciprocity; social exchange became flexible in its exchange rates, following cultural norms; and group schema developed as an instrument for the fine-tuning of social adjustment and the tightening of group control over private life. The fragment of the discussion with Barkow gives an idea how complex and arduous the testing of the meta-selection hypothesis will be. But whatever the results of testing show, it is hoped that the theme of meta-selection opens new alternatives for thinking about the old puzzles of altruism, self-sacrifice, and self-restraint, which will stimulate both evolutionary psychologists and psychoanalysts in their striving for a deeper and unified understanding of human nature.